The American Revolution: Battle Over Who Will Govern
Part III
/Perhaps the most dramatic individual response to these actions was Common Sense by Thomas Paine (1737-1809). An instant best seller (over 120,000 copies in 3 months), it stripped kingship of its historical and theological justifications, arguing that when a government oppressed a people or ruled arbitrarily, it surrendered its right to demand obedience from the people it governed. The volume denounced monarchy as corrupt.
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/ "Paine's greatest contribution to the revolutionary cause was persuading common fold to sever their ties with Great Britain. . . . [Paine wrote,] ‘We have it in our power to begin the world over again. . . the birthday of a new world is at hand’" (America, p. 145).
a. The Psychology of Revolt
(1) Age Medians
About 60% of the population was under age 21. / "Any explanation for the coming of independence. . . must take into account the continuing political mobilization of so many young people" (America, p. 126).(2) Post-War (French and Indian) Prosperity & Rising Standard of Living.[1]
Average per capita income in 1774 in America was £37.4 (exceeding the per capita wealth in most 3rd world nations of today!)
(3) Lockean Philosophy
/ John Locke (left), 1632-1704, published Second Treatise of Civil Government as an apologetic for the ascension of William of Orange, 1650-1702 (right) to the English throne. Locke’s work “justified rebellion against arbitrary forms of government" (America, p. 130). /b.The Declaration of Independence & Enlightenment Ideas/Ideals
"We hold these truths to be self-evident that all men are created equal, that they endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. That, to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just Powers from the consent of the governed. That, whenever any form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government" (Cited in Edmond Wright's Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution, p. 11)."Since it is an open secret that the decision for American independence from England in 1776 owes much to the intellectual movement we seek, we may enjoy from the beginning the irony that the early Enlightenment in America was very much a selection from Enlightenment at home, as they were carried across the sea" (Charles A. Barker, American Convictions, p. 191).
Montesquieu , 1689-1755 (right) wrote Spirit of the Laws that advocated “Separation of Powers,” a principle of government adopted by the Founding Fathers of the newly formed United States. /
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Voltaire (1694-1788)
Voltaire was the best-known figure of the 18th century European Enlightenment. He vigorously attacked idle aristocrats, corrupt government officials, inequality, injustice, and superstition.
/ "The foundation of our Empire was not laid in the gloomy age of Ignorance and Superstition, but at an Epocha when the rights of mankind were better understood and more clearly defined than at any former period, the researches of the human mind, after social happiness, have been carried to a great extent by the Treasures of knowledge acquired by the labours of Philosophers, Sages and Legislatures, through a long succession of years, are laid open for our use, and their collected wisdom may be happily applied in the Establishment of our forms of Government" (Garry Wills, Cincinnatus: George Washington and the Enlightenment, p. 196).
1. Battle of Trenton—December 25, 1776
/ After crossing the Delaware River, Washington's army caught the sleeping Hessian mercenary soldiers completely by surprise. /2. Princeton—January 3, 1777
/ Washington surprised the British garrison at Princeton.3. "Remember Rehoboam!" John Wesley's resounding echo
Seal of King George /
George III
/ In an impassioned appeal to King George III (left), founder of Methodism, John Wesley[2] admonished "For God's sake, 'Remember Rehoboam!," a Biblical allusion to the tax revolt which permanently ruptured relations between the northern kingdom of Israel from the kingdom of Judah. /John Wesley, 1703-1791
4. Philosophies of Strategy
a. Guerrilla War
This philosophy stressed the possibility that "small partisan bands would sap Britain's will to rule America. . . . [Washington] failed to comprehend the importance of this militia. These scattered, almost amateur, military units seldom altered the outcome of battle, but they did maintain control over large areas of the country not directly affected by the British army. Throughout the war, they compelled men and women who would rather have remained neutral to support actively the American effort. . . . Without local political coercion, Washington's task would have been considerably more difficult" (America, p. 148).b. Washington's Strategy
/ He "had learned during the French and Indian War, military success depended upon endless drill, careful planning, and tough discipline—rigorous preparation that did not characterize the minutemen's methods. Washington insisted upon organizing a regular, well-trained field army" (America, p. 147).(1) Perceived Continental Army as symbolic of the republican cause—was more
than merely a fighting force
(2) Army's survival was critical to acquisition of foreign aid and/or alliances
(3) General strategy was to avoid "general actions" which might destroy the Army
This led to criticism that Washington was overcautious
5. Surrender at Saratoga—October 17, 1777
a. Victory under General Horatio Gates who defeated British General John Burgoyne
Horatio Gates, c. 1727-1806 /
John Burgoyne surrenders to Gates /
Gates and Burgoyne (1722-1792)
/ The overbearing Burgoyne, 1722-1792 (right) commanded 7,000 troops that he led down from Canada into military disaster. He surrendered 5,800 troops to Gates. /b. **The genesis of open French intervention
Even before this American victory, Louis XVI, 1754-1793 (right) had sent covert aid to the rebels. The anti-British posture was in large part a product of resentment over the French defeat in the French and Indian War (1754-1763). /Louis XVI
/ "The negotiations for these arms involved secret agents and fictitious trading companies, the type of clandestine operation more typical of modern times than of the eighteenth century. . . . The international stakes were too great for the king to openly back a cause that had little chance of success" (America, p. 151).(1) Marquis de Lafayette, 1757-1834 (below left)
(2) General Rochambeau, 1725-1807 (below, second from left)
/ / Both of these French military leaders were instrumental in securing Washington's decisive victory over Cornwallis at Yorktown. /**It is noteworthy that the Washington-Rochambeau relationship (above right) was not marred by the competitive angling for power, which so often distinguishes these kinds of alliances. Rochambeau seemed to be a genuinely humble man who pleasantly deferred to Washington.
(3) French Treaties with Americans—February 6, 1778
/ Largely the work of American diplomat, Benjamin Franklin. /(a) Treaty of Amity and Commerce
Established commercial relations between France and U.S., a
tacit acknowledgement of American independence.
(b) Treaty of Alliance
Treaties surrendered French claim to territories (now controlled
by British) east of Mississippi in exchange for American
promise not to sign a separate peace with Britain.
"French intervention instantly transformed British military strategy. What had been a colonial rebellion suddenly became a world conflict, a continuation of the great wars for empire of the late-seventeenth century."c. Shift in British Position Toward Colonies
(1) North privately expressed doubt that England could win
(2) Peace Commission sent to America—April 1778
(a) asked colonials to drop demand for independence
(b) in exchange, Britain would turn the imperial clock back to 1763
This was a belated concession giving Americans the right to tax themselves and elect their own governors; moreover, British troops would be from America in peacetime. /Lord North
(3) American response
Having their resolve hardened by the war, the Americans refused to cooperate.
d. Howe Resigns after Defeat at Saratoga
Sir William Howe, 1729-1814 / Howe (left) was replaced by General Henry Clinton, c. 1738-1795 (right). Upon assuming his new role, Clinton's resolve and resolute self-confidence suddenly dissolved. /
6. Valley Forge—Winter of 1777-1778
/ Washington and Lafayette (left) encourage the troops enduring bitter winter cold and snow. / / Valley Forge is located about 20 miles outside of Philadelphia where Howe had decided to winter. /Washington on horseback
7. Siege of Yorktown—September 30 - October 17, 1781
a. French Role in Securing Victory
/ Securing of the Chesapeake Bay (left) by French fleet under Admiral Francois Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse (1722-1788). /Comte de Grasse
/ / Ironically, de Grasse evaded Sir George Rodney's British fleet in the Caribbean, and managed to hold off the world's foremost naval power at Chesapeake, only to meet with defeat in the West Indies when Rodney, 1719-1792 (left) overwhelmed his fleet and virtually eliminated any French presence in the Caribbean.b. Culmination of a Process
"When Washington learned that the French fleet could gain temporary dominance in the Chesapeake Bay, he rushed south from New Jersey. With him marched thousands of well-trained French troops under Comte de Rochambeau. All the pieces fell into place. The French admiral, Comte de Grasse, cut Cornwallis off from the sea, while Washington and his lieutenants encircled the British on land" (America, p. 154)./ / Washington and his lieutenants (left); Washington observes Cornwallis’ representative surrender (right); Cornwallis leaves Yorktown (far right) / /
c. Destruction of British Will to Fight
**Yorktown destroyed the British will to fight any longer. It was the last important battle of the war.d. British Perception of Impact of the Loss
A World Turn'd Upside Down—the popular contemporary tune to which the British surrendered their arms at Yorktown. / / **There was a widely held, popular expectation in Britain that the loss of North America would lead to the collapse of Britain as an imperial power (e.g. cartoon, right). In fact, the concentration of power in the American government probably forestalled the fragmenting of North American under the control of competing European colonial powers (vs. the concentration of the North America’s resources in the hands of a single government). /8. The Toll of War
“Proportionate to the population, a greater percentage of Americans died in military service during the Revolution than in any war in American history, with the exception of the Civil War” (America, p. 126).A.The Odds of Winning—The Balance Sheet
"To the European governments, Britain's problems in America seem to have looked like a traditional and well-known event, the rebellion of some peripheral provinces in a composite state, sparked off by a tactless metropolitan government riding roughshod over established local privileges and insisting unnecessarily on its sovereign authority. . . . Most of the northern European powers formed an 'Armed Neutrality' that was distinctly hostile to Britain. Militarily, the coalition was successful. For the first time in a century, Britain lost control of the sea. . . . In Europe itself [involvement in the conflict] left the governments with huge debts. It also left them with a political and emotional legacy that they had not at all expected: the spread of American ideas of popular sovereignty, republicanism, and the rights of man—all of them good European Enlightenment ideas, but now, for the first time, translated into political reality" (Modern Europe, p. 303)."Only fools and visionaries were optimistic about America's prospects of winning independence in 1776. . . . The British government entered the conflict fully confident that it could beat the Americans. In 1776, Lord North and his colleagues regarded the war as a police action. They anticipated that a mere show of armed force would intimidate the upstart colonists" (America, p. 146).
The colonials took on the world's most powerful empire—a presence that had been steadily expanding
around the globe for the past century, a kingdom with vast and impressive resources—and won!
1. Money
England—more wealth and adequate taxing power, a strong manufacturing base / Colonies—less wealth and inadequate taxing power2. Leadership
England—inefficient and over-confident / Colonies—outstanding men such as Washington, Allen, Greene, MontgomeryLord North,
1732-1792 /George Germain, 1716-1785 /
Ethan Allen, 1738-1789 & the Green Mountain Boys /
Nathanael Greene, 1742-1786 /
Richard Montgomery, 1738-1775
On either side of the reign of George III, we find competent or brilliant statesmanship—Pitt the Elder guiding Britain to victory in the Seven Years' War and founding a North American British Empire, and Pitt the Younger successfully contending with Napoleon. The ministers of George III were lacking in confidence, reckless, arrogant, obtuse, or notorious as drinkers and gamblers. His Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord George Germain,[3] had actually been court-martialed for cowardice in 1760 and found unfit for military service of any kind (America, p. 128).
/ William Pitt the Elder, 1708-1778 (left) and his son, William Pitt the Younger, 1759-1806 (right) /
"Talent played little part in the scramble for office, and incompetent hacks were advanced
as frequently as men of vision" (Modern Europe, p. 453).
3. Military Power
**England—well-equipped soldiers, well-trained army and navy with battlefield experience; also money to hire mercenary troops from Germany. / Colonies—shortage of trained soldiers, poorly equipped armyThe "long rifle" (right) gave the colonials an advantage over the British rifles (see Alistair Cooke's America: Making a Revolution) / / “British commanders, incompetent, self-destructive, and far from home, found the colonists far more formidable than they had expected" (Modern Europe, p. 453).
4. Geography
**England—fighting far from home with long and difficult to maintain supply lines. / Colonies—fighting on own familiar soil and terrain; short supply lines./ The logistical challenges this presented to the British were of unprecedented complexity. Lines of communication were unreliable and broke down in wartime conditions. Moreover, "America was too vast to be conquered by conventional military methods. Redcoats might gain control over the major port cities, but as long as the Continental army remained intact, the rebellion continued. . . . Britain could only win by crushing the American will to resist" (America, pp. 146-147). /
Some 3,000 miles separated Britain from her colonies
5. Government
England—strong and well-established system / **Colonies—government lacking longevity and authority6. Motivation
England—hired soldiers with no real interest in war's outcome / Colonies—fighting for their freedom/ Hessian soldiers (left) from Germany had little stake in the outcome of the war. They fought for money. The Minuteman and soldier s in the Continental Army were fighting to defend their very homeland. /
Nathan Hale, 1755-1776 / Nathan Hale (left), was an embodiment of America’s moral conviction and patriotic cause. This Connecticut schoolteacher became an officer in the Revolutionary Army. He was captured behind enemy lines and subsequently hung as a spy. His last words still resonate: “I regret that I have only one life to lose for my country.”
7. Population
England—four times larger than the colonies / Colonies—only a fourth the number of peopleA BIRD’S EYE ASSESSMENT
Some argue that the British lost the war more than the Americans won it defeat (Barbara Tuchman, The First Salute: A View of the American Revolution; see also America, p. 146 and Modern Europe, pp. 453-456). Cornwallis was Britain's most competent general; he was bold, courageous, and able, with impressive victories both before and after his assignment in America. Yorktown was his only military defeat (America, p. 146).[4] / "Britain had become involved in an impossible military situation, in some ways analogous to that in which the United States found itself in Vietnam" (America, p. 146). / "The improbable and the unforeseen had become reality: the American colonies were free and independent. . . . The victory of the colonies proved that free men could, after all, defeat a powerful and entrenched imperial power [an Enlightenment ideal]" (Modern Europe, pp. 453-454).[5]B.The Peace of Paris—September 3, 1783—and the Proclamation of Peace in London—October 6,
1783
1. The Peace Process at Paris
The American Delegation (right)—the painting remained incomplete because the British diplomatsrefused to pose. / / It was an atmosphere fraught with intrigue. Rumors even circulated that the French might conspire with other European powers to deny America her independence.
The Peace of Paris of September 1783 "exceeded all expectations and astounded the most experienced of European diplomats. . . . But whether this agglomeration of independent colonies—now independent states—would prosper, or even survive, remained open to question" (Modern Europe, pp. 453-454).
2. The Final Bargain
"The peacemakers drove a remarkable bargain, a much better one than Congress could have
expected. . . . It is difficult to imagine how Franklin, Adams, and Jay could have
negotiated a more favorable conclusion to the war" (America, p. 156).
a.The U.S. re-ceived indepen-dence / b. Transfer of all territory east of Missis-sippi save Spanish Florida / c. Generous boundaries to north and south giving Americans important fishing rights in the North Atlantic / d. Promise of Congress to help British merchants collect debts contracted before the Revolution / e. Promise of Congress to help compensate Loyalists whose lands had been confiscated by various state governmentsC.Winning the Revolution vs. Winning Independence
/ "The War of the Revolution has been won, but the War of Independence is still to be fought." Ben Franklin after the American Revolution. /Benjamin Rush observed: "'There is nothing more common than to confound the terms of the American Revolution with those of the late American [Revolutionary] war. The American war is over, but this is far from being the case with the American Revolution. On the contrary, nothing but the first act of the great drama is closed.'" In other words, "it remained for the men and women who had resisted taxation without representation to work out the full implications of republicanism" (America, p. 156).
“The War that Nobody Won” /
Ft. McHenry (above) at entryway to Baltimore & Francis Scott Key (right) /
Author of Star Spangled Banner /
Treaty of Ghent—December 24, 1814 /
Battle of New Orleans
It took the War of 1812 to (1) convince the British that the Revolution was no mistake—it demonstrated that the U.S. would remain an independent country—and (2) imbue Americans with a new self-awareness and confidence in its abilities and potential.
I.Conclusions