22
Historical
Running head: COMPREHENSIVE EXAM QUESTION 1
Comprehensive Exam Question 1:
The Historical Background of Race-Based
Scholarships in Higher Education
Brandi N. Hutchins
University of Cincinnati
Abstract
Research indicates that people of color have been victims of racism, discrimination and oppression in society. The same holds true for people of color in higher education. To increase access and opportunities for minorities in higher education, race-based scholarships were implemented. The allocation of these monetary awards was supported by the government through the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Higher Education Act of 1965. Currently, race-based scholarships are being challenged and terminated. To explore the foundation of race-based scholarships, the author will review the history of African Americans in higher education and evaluate the historical relevance of affirmative action.
The Historical Background of Race-based
Scholarships in Higher Education
The American Dream, what does this mean? For many it signifies occupational success, job stability, and the belief that all good things in life are obtainable through hard work. The reality is that the American Dream does not hold true for all Americans. For many minorities, especially African Americans, this dream is deferred. At a young age, education is heavily stressed in the homes of many young children, but for minorities, the thought of obtaining a higher education is not as simple as it seems. Amprey (1981) stated that, “The failure of Blacks to attain the kind of success enjoyed by other White ethnic groups can be attributed to their inability to assimilate into the American mainstream” (p.335). The American Dream is simply a Eurocentric belief that many members of the dominant culture have adopted as a creed to live by. Minorities in society do not have the same privileges granted to them as the dominant culture, so it is more challenging to succeed.
For decades, minorities, especially African Americans, have been oppressed, disenfranchised, and discriminated against in American society. In addition, the field of higher education has turned into a microcosm of mainstream society. The playing field has never been equal. When looking at who has access to a higher education, it is evident that the doors of equal opportunity are quickly closed for many minority students, especially at predominately White institutions.
For many minorities, the picture of going to college is very dismal. The plan seems straightforward, but the reality is bleak. Obtaining a degree from an institution of higher learning becomes a discussion of dollars and cents, standardized test scores, and grade point averages based on a college preparatory course load. By no means is there an insinuation that Whites do not struggle, but the struggle could be more severe for African Americans and other minority youth who aspire to enroll, matriculate, and graduate from college.
There has been much controversy about race-based scholarships in higher education. The root of this controversy is that many qualified White applicants feel that they are denied opportunities granted to students of color. Some also feel that society has done more than enough to correct the evils of past discrimination. Others feel that race and racism is not a problem in society given that everyone has an equal opportunity. Nevertheless, race continues to be a major concern, especially in higher education. As the academic requirements and cost of college continue to increase, minority access to college is more challenging than ever.
This paper will focus on minorities in higher education, with an emphasis on African Americans. The author will give a brief overview of African Americans in higher education, examine the history of race-based scholarships in higher education, and review landmark policies of affirmative action which have been instrumental in the race debate.
Why Race-Based Scholarships?
It is the assumption that race-based scholarships originated from the implementation of restricted scholarships. Restricted scholarships are those that make distinctions on the eligibility of the recipient. Many scholarships were awarded to students from the generosity of alumni and cooperate giving. These donors could grant financial awards based on one’s race, gender, academic major, and/or other defining characteristics. This allocation of monetary giving allows the donor to have total control over who receives the award. The relationship between the donor and the university provides a commitment to finance one’s education (with stipulations) while also fully supporting the university on their terms. Research suggests that most of the scholarships in the country were awarded to White males (Cross, 2000). Based on financial award allotments, race is a factor in restricted scholarships. Currently many universities, private organizations, and other entities use race as a criteria of restriction. However, of all the many monetary award distinctions, race-based awards seem to be overwhelmingly criticized.
Many believed that the use of race-based scholarships were helpful in desegregating predominantly White and Black universities. Wiggins (1966) suggested that scholarships for Whites and Blacks, who were enrolled in institutions that were heterogeneous in race, should be provided to college students and high school seniors. O’Neil (1971) provided a rational for the use of race-based scholarships. He noted that universities tend to downplay the use of race-targeted policies. If race should not be considered, then the following should be addressed: a) those who have been victims of overt racial discrimination, b) those who are socio-economically disadvantaged, c) those who have been unfairly appraised by standardized tests, and d) those who are graduates of over-crowded, run-down, and badly staffed high schools (O’Neil, 1971, p. 750). Most Black, Hispanic, and American Indian students definitely meet those characteristics and meet the qualifications for special treatment (O’Neil, 1971).
Many colleges and universities looked for ways to help qualified Blacks students enter college. Meeth (1966) reported that in 1964, of the 1,300 White colleges in the United States, only 144 indicated that they gave special scholarships to Blacks. He further referenced that many colleges alleged that they would grant scholarships to Blacks in the near future and would do a better job recruiting academically talented Black students to their institution.
In further attempts to diversify predominately White institutions and to give opportunities to disadvantaged ethnic groups, in 1966, it was reported that 2,400 Navajo Indians students received scholarships from the Bureau of Indian Affairs (Clift, 1969). In addition, Aspira Scholarship and Loan Center, founded in 1961 to address issues pertaining to the Puerto Rican population, gave close to $200,000 in aid to 186 prospective Puerto Rican college students (Clift, 1969). Blacks were not the only race to receive financial assistance. Monetary commitments were made to many students of color in the 1960’s, illustrating that the minority student population was still at a disadvantage compared to White students.
Many Whites believe that most of the scholarships and grants are given to minorities, but Marable (1997) explains that in the 1990’s, only 2 percent of this type of funding was distributed to minorities. A large number of students of color had to find additional means to fund their college education. To answer the question why race-based scholarships; many universities felt it necessary to implement race-conscious policies given the prevalence of racial inequalities. Moore (2005) provides rationale by referencing that many judges and agencies “realized that the only way to effectively provide equal opportunity was to consider race when necessary to eliminate segregation and exclusion” (p.7).
History of Blacks in Higher Education
Is the Negro worthy of an education? This was the question of interest in the turn of the 19th century. Education was frowned upon for Blacks given that they were seen as property. Anderson (2002) quoted a Scottish philosopher by the name of David Hume, who in 1784 articulated, “I am apt to suspect that the Negroes, and in general all other species of men to be naturally inferior to the Whites. There never was a more civilized nation of any other complexion than White...”(p. 3). A quote of this magnitude displays the overall mindset of many Whites during that time in history. Given the overt racial disparities, McMillan (1939) quoted that much of the thoughts pertaining to Blacks were that, “colored people are made to plow and cut wood… It is bad doctrine to teach that the Negro has a right to be trained to the end that his life will become richer and fuller (p.13). Even the highest court in the land referenced that the Constitution of the United States did not pertain to Negroes, stating that they were considered “a subordinate and inferior class of beings…subjugated by the dominate race” (Byrd-Chichester, 2000, p. 13). Byrd-Chichester (2000) indicates in the Dred Scott decision of 1857, that the court held that no slave or free Black should ever be entitled citizenship or any rights granted by the Constitution. This statute was later overturned when the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery and the Fourteenth Amendment stated that all people born in the United States were citizens. Nevertheless, given this transitional period for Blacks and other minorities, Bell (1991), explained that “actions taken to promote justice for Blacks brought injustice to Whites without appreciably improving the status or standards of living for Blacks, particularly those members of the group who most needed protection” (p. 602).
The opportunity for Blacks to enter into institutions of higher learning began in the middle 1800’s. Lawson and Merrill (1983) reported that Oberlin College, founded in 1833 and located in Northern Ohio, was the first college to willingly open its doors to Black students. Carter G. Woodson remarked that “Oberlin College did much for the climate of integration in higher education after the Civil War and was a model to other universities” (as citied in Lawson & Merrill, 1983, p. 143). In 1853, Antioch College was the second college to admit Blacks and women.
Given the challenges of Blacks entering into White universities; the establishment of the Black colleges came into fruition. Wilson (1998) reported that before the Civil War, a small number of African Americans enrolled into predominantly White institutions; however, Blacks wanted to be in an environment that fostered educational growth in a non-oppressive atmosphere. Byrd-Chichester (2000) noted that after the war, many Black institutions opened to address the educational needs of Blacks. Fleming (1981) expressed that Blacks came to the conclusion that they must establish their own educational institutions in order to obtain a higher education. Nonetheless, not all Whites believed that Blacks were inferior. Some felt that they were entitled to a formal education. Many Whites assisted in the establishment of Black colleges and with the desegregation of White institutions. Cheyney University, located in Pennsylvania, is recorded as the oldest historically Black institution founded in 1837; following was Lincoln University (formally known as Ashmun Institute), which was established in 1854. Wilberforce University opened in 1856 and is recorded as the first Black private institution (Geiger, 1999).
Given that Black colleges were an important model in the education of African Americans, Ware and Determan (1966) alluded that most Black institutions did not measure up to White institutions. McMillan (1939) discussed that there were inferior depictions of Black institutions of higher learning in which most colleges at that time were tagged with the name “Agricultural,” “Mechanical,” “Industrial,” “Normal,” and “Institute.” Black schools during this time would hardly ever uphold names such as “College” or “University” (1939).
Landmark Proceedings
The 1954 landmark case of Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka set the stage for Blacks to legally have an equal opportunity in the educational system and ruled separate but equal education illegal for African Americans and other minority groups. Powell (1998) reported that many White colleges and universities did not agree with this decision and refused to accept Blacks into their institutions. The federal government had to intervene. Powell (1998) continued by detailing that when Blacks were admitted into White institutions they were subjected to the following: physical and psychological abuse, segregated and inferior housing and dining facilities, restricted access to classes and curriculum, and extremely hostile campus living and learning environments (p. 97).
Title VI of the Civil Right Act of 1964
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: No person in the United States shall, on the grounds of race, color, or national origin, be excluded from participating in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance (Egerton, 1982). As higher education began to transform for Blacks regarding the increasing efforts to terminate racial discrimination, Ware and Determan (1966) reported that the federal government was instrumental in this reformation by increasing financial assistance for Black students and institutions under Title VI. Barros (1968) suggested that what must be considered is that Black students and special programs must be financed. Ultimately, Title VI provided this funding. Barros (1968) also indicated that Title VI and Title III of the National Defense Education Act provided funding to enhance the training required to teach disadvantaged youth. This obligation stemmed from Determan and Ware’s (1966) proclamation that the federal government has been a silent partner in discriminating against people of color.
With the enactment of the Land Grant College Act of 1862, Determan and Ware (1966) stated that the federal government invested billions of dollars into higher education. They further indicated that “if a institution of higher education received or has applied for federal financial aid, they must agree to make no distinctions on the grounds of race, color, or national origin in its practices relating to the admission and treatment of students” (p. 6). Under Title VI, Determan and Ware illustrated that institutions would be in violation if the following occurred (1966):
· University promotional materials and recruiters were being sent only to White areas.
· In a three year period, only enrolling three Blacks in each incoming class.
· Making up geographic areas which restricted Blacks from enrolling who reside in predominately Black areas.
· Adopting admission policies that favors children of alumni and which have discriminated against Blacks in the past.
· Discriminating against Blacks from admission into college fraternities controlled by the university.