Eric Foner, New Left Historian
1. In a historical essay, particularly one using comparative history and critical thinking analysis, you use a particular form. It is as follows.
2. Polished Writing Question. Discuss and evaluate three ways in which viewpoint, bias, propaganda, mythology and/or objectivity have impacted our study of American History during Unit One. Indicate which position you find to be more persuasive and explain why. At least one paragraph must include comparative history and critical thinking. Individual.
This is an open-ended essay question. It is vague and you are supposed to fill in the blanks with your own thoughts, interpretations and ideas. The writing samples I gave you so far, do not tell you how to write your essay. They are sample paragraphs that I wrote that show you how to introduce arguments, use direct quotes, footnotes, analysis and interpretation.
3. Comparative History. Pick out point/counterpoint quotes. These are direct quotations that disagree with each other. One historian has an interpretation, that another disagrees with. They might dispute what really happened (facts), or they could disagree on what the event means (historical significance). One participant might say X, and another primary source might say Y (not-X). In this example, male clergy believed that God mandated that women be submissive and inferior, while some women's rights advocates countered that their Biblical interpretation were full of B.S.
Ministers argued from the "sin of Eve" and the masculinity of Jesus that female subordination was God-given. Sara M. Evans, Professor of History at University of Minnesota, Born for Liberty, A History of Women in America (New York: The Free Press, 1989), 102. / Jehovah signifies not alone the masculine and the feminine principles but also the spirit or vivifying intelligence. It is a compound word indicative of the three divine principles.48 Holy Ghost although in Hebrew, a noun of either genders, masculine, feminine, neuter, is invariably rendered masculine by Christian translators of the Bible.49 In the Greek, from whence we obtain the New Testament, spirit is of the feminine gender, although invariably translated masculine. The double-sexed word, Jehovah, too sacred to be spoken by the Jews, signified the masculine-feminine God.50 The proof of the double meaning of Jehovah, the masculine and feminine signification, Father-Mother, is undeniable. Lanci, one of the great Orientalists, says:
Jehovah should be read from left to right, and pronounced Ho-Hi; that is to say He-She (Hi pronounced He,) Ho in Hebrew being the masculine pronoun and Hi the feminine. Ho-Hi therefore denotes the male and female principles, the vis genatrix.51 Matilda Joslyn Gage, Women's Rights Advocate and Abolitionist, (1893), Woman, Church And State (New York: Humanity Books, (1893), 2002), 63-4.
48. Observe that I. H. U. is Jod, male, father; "He" is female, Binah, and U is male, Vau, Son.—Sepher Yetzirah.
49. The Perfect Way.—Kingsford.
50. I. A. H. according to the Nabbalists, is I. (Father) and A. H. (Mother); composed of I. the male, and H. the mother. Nork.—Bibl. Mythol. 164-65 (note to Sod 166, 2, 354.)
51. Nork says the "Women clothed with the sign of the Sun and the Moon is the bi-sexed or male-female deity; hence her name is Iah, composed of the masculine I and the feminine Ah. Sod.—Appendix 123.
4. Critical Thinking. Critical thinking is the art of deciding for yourself, which of these opposing authorities to believe. The two exercises I handed out entitled "Critical Thinking" explain some pegs to hang your hat on, as does the point/counterpoint exercise we went over in class. Briefly some categories are:
1. / General vs. / Specific
2. / Facts vs. / Interpretation
3. / Primary sources vs. / Secondary Sources
4. / Participants vs. / Myth Makers
5. Sample Paragraph.
One of the ways viewpoint impacted our study of history concerned women’s roles in Colonial society. Christian ministers argued that God’s laws mandated that females were inferior and submissive due to the "sin of Eve."[1] Twenty centuries of male clergy interpreted the Bible to say that God, Jesus Christ and the Pope were all males. Because Adam was born without sin, and Eve seduced him against God’s wishes, women brought sin and death into the world. Therefore all females should thereafter defer to the master gender, namely men. By contrast, Matilda Joslyn Gage, a free-thinking Unitarian women’s rights advocate in 1893, wrote that the male dominated clergy got it all wrong. Going back to the Hebrew Bible (also known as the Old Testament), she corrected a central mistranslation. “Jehovah (God)” did not refer to the Father, instead it meant, the He-She God.[2] The Christian deity had both masculine and feminine qualities, which the male clergy deleted out. According to Gage, the entire dogma concerning the “sin of Eve” was made up by the male clergy in order to promote their sexist agenda. Considering the merit of both quotations, Gage quotes a primary source (the Bible) while the masculine clergy refer to secondary sources that are not part of the Holy Bible at all, such as pseudepigrapha and St. Augustine. As such, Gage’s position is far more persuasive. This provides an excellent example of how different viewpoints affect our study of American History. Male clergy ruled the roost for twenty centuries by misquoting the Bible, conjuring up the mythology that God, the Father, dictated that women were supposed to be inferior and submissive. They wrote their questionable interpretation into law. By contrast, a better Bible scholar, Matilda Gage, argued in support of equal rights for women by exposing the flaws in their logic and by questioning their interpretations. Her arguments built upon the works of such early feminists such as Abigail Adams, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady-Stanton. The cumulative force of their arguments in favor of equality and against their undemocratic denial of the right to vote eventually culminated in passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.
6. Sample Paragraph Analyzed.
One of the ways viewpoint impacted our study of history concerns women’s roles in Colonial society. [Topic Sentence: frames the issue] Christian ministers argued that God’s laws mandated that females were inferior and submissive due to the "sin of Eve."[3] [Identifies the point at issue, quotes an authority and contains a direct quote.] Twenty centuries of male clergy interpreted the Bible to say that God, Jesus Christ and the Pope were all males. Because Adam was born without sin, and Eve seduced him against God’s wishes, women brought sin and death into the world. Therefore all females should thereafter defer to the master gender, namely men. [My analysis] By contrast, Matilda Joslyn Gage, a free-thinking Unitarian women’s rights advocate in 1893, wrote that the male dominated clergy got it all wrong. Going back to the Hebrew Bible (also known as the Old Testament), she corrected a central mistranslation. “Jehovah (God)” did not refer to the Father, instead it meant, the He-She God.[4] [Counterpoint with authority, qualifications, and direct quote] The Christian deity had both masculine and feminine qualities, which the male clergy deleted out. According to Gage, the entire dogma concerning the “sin of Eve” was made up by the male clergy in order to promote their sexist agenda. [My analysis] Considering the merit of both quotations, Gage quotes a primary source (the Bible) while the masculine clergy refer to secondary sources that are not part of the Holy Bible at all, such as pseudepigrapha and St. Augustine. As such, Gage’s position is far more persuasive. [Critical thinking analysis, compares and evaluates the two quotes. Uses the primary vs. secondary source peg to hang hat on.] This provides an excellent example of how different viewpoints affect our study of American History. Male clergy ruled the roost for twenty centuries by misquoting the Bible, conjuring up the mythology that God, the Father, dictated that women were supposed to be inferior and submissive. They wrote their questionable interpretation into law. By contrast, a better Bible scholar, Matilda Gage, argued in support of equal rights for women by exposing the flaws in their logic and by questioning their interpretations. Her arguments built upon the works of such early feminists such as Abigail Adams, Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady-Stanton. The cumulative force of their arguments in favor of equality and against their undemocratic denial of the right to vote eventually culminated in passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920. [Concluding point, explains historical significance]
7. Five Paragraph Essay.
A five paragraph essay contains the following outline:
A. Topic Paragraph. Introduces and defines the paper. Contains a topic sentence that outlines the three points to be covered. [Sample topic sentence] Bias, viewpoint and propaganda were important issues in our study of American History, whose impact will be addressed concerning women, African American and Tory rights.
B. First Point. Starts with a topic sentence that defines the issue to be discussed.
C. Second Point. Although some students choose to write three paragraphs about Native Americans, Christopher Columbus or the Revolutionary War, choosing three different topics provides better coverage. For example, if you write about bias, viewpoint and/or propaganda in women's rights, Native Americans and the Origins of Democracy, then you have addressed three main issues in Unit One.
D. Third Point.
E. Summary or Conclusion.
8. History Day Supplement. Read over the National History Day judging standards. Decide for yourself whether or not monographic narrative history, or interpretative and comparative history are called for.
a. Narrative vs. Interpretative History. Narrative history tells a story. This happened, this happened and then this happened. A biography is an example of narrative history. A basic biography reads: Joe was born, Joe went to college, and Joe died. Progressive historians, who write the majority of middle, high school and introductory college textbooks, use narrative history. By contrast, interpretative history, that is written by New Left scholars and better writers, is what is called for by advanced history professors and History Day papers. The focus is on how the author analyzes and evaluates opposing viewpoints and authorities. This requires critical thinking, independent thought and in graduate school an original thesis.
b. Monograph vs. Comparative History. A monograph is written by one author. Typical Progressive historians write from a WASP viewpoint and they tell the grand American narrative (mythology). On the other hand, comparative history presents multiple viewpoints, including African-American, Native American, social class and women. British causes of the Revolutionary War are compared with Loyalist positions and Patriot sentiments. Comparative history writers reveal the powerful idea of cognitive dissonance; when you have two historians in a room, you find competing truths, history and memory, and profound, fundamental disagreement, not their opposing counterparts. My website: www.msaiki.com under “Front,” which is my Front Range Community College page contains my comparative history textbook, and under “Events” contains my Critical Thinking and History Day pages. Students, teachers and professors are welcome to email me for consultation, presentations and demonstrations of my Discussion Packet Teaching Method, and educational theories. My email: .
c. Proofreading Marks. Download or read my lesson entitled, “Proofreading Marks.” In addition, W.C. refers to “word choice.” The first level is not to repeat the same word over and over. Use synonyms, pronouns, variety and/or a thesaurus. The second is substantive; one History Day paper referred to John F. Kennedy as the “Head Dude,” rather than as “President of the United States.”
d. Uphill Battle. This is a great opportunity. As I indicate in my memos, interpretative and comparative history are really not subjects that are taught in middle or high schools, or even in survey courses in most college history courses. Really what you are being asked to do is to write a historical essay that is judged by upper level college standards of historical objectivity, independent thought and critical thinking. As you are new to this process, you can get a head start on your peers, by continuing to compete in History Day contests.
e. Historical Significance. In order for a person to have historical significance or a legacy, they need to have what I think of as transformational importance. Petty Berg and Nancy Lopez may be important figures in women's golf, and they may both wind up in the Hall of Fame. Likewise Michael Jordan and A-Rod might big figures in their respective sports, but they need to be more than superstar ball players in order to become historically important. Lou Gehrig and his famous farewell speech come close, as does Roberto Clemente's charitable works, but neither clearly hit that ball out of the park. I think of Mohandas Gandhi, whose work liberated India and whose ideas of nonviolent resistance influenced Martin Luther King. Gandhi's contributions to philosophy and humanity allow him to transcend being merely an important figure in Indian history, but a contributor toward the well-being for all mankind. The bottom line is that these figures must be something more than just important in their respective fields, their impact must be felt across racial and ethnic lines, and transcend national boundaries, to benefit humanity. The accomplishments of the medical researchers who identify cancer's and AID's symptoms, pale in comparison with the scientists who eventually find their cure. Those Nobel Prize winning individuals, who diagnose carbon footprints, are much less important than those who will find its solution.
f. Primary Sources. Primary sources are books, newspapers and articles written during the time period in question. Abraham Lincoln's diary written in 1860 is a primary document, while a New York Times article about Lincoln written in 1960 is not. There is some historical controversy as to whether or not a direct quote from a participant, in a secondary source, provided it is properly footnoted, is a primary document. I believe that it is and most scholars disagree. There is a general consensus that verbatim reprints of primary documents, although written much later are still considered to be primary documents.
In my mind, the dichotomy between primary and secondary sources, takes a backseat to participants vs. myth-makers. Direct quotations from participants form the meat and potatoes of a strong historical essay. Primary sources that do not contain statement made by participants carry far less weight. What Horace Greeley thinks of the Emancipation Proclamation is peripheral to Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass' thoughts.
g. Word Count. Use MS Word's word count function and write the number of words on your title page.
h. Outline for 2009 History Day Topic.
1. Introduction, topic paragraph
Benjamin Franklin's three most important accomplishments were . . .
2. Accomplishment One
Action, Analysis, Interpretation and Legacy
3. Accomplishment Two
Action, Analysis, Interpretation and Legacy
4. Accomplishment Three
Action, Analysis, Interpretation and Legacy
5. Conclusion.
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