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Geography-Chapter 14-The Russian Core

Geography Matters...

People rely on natural resources to provide for their everyday life. The harsh geography of the Russian Core has stimulated empire building. For centuries, the people of the subregion have sought out waterways that connect to other lands and resources. This subregion has a violent political history, as well as a rich cultural heritage. After the fall of the Communist regime, the Russian Core today is claiming a new identity in the global economy.

LESSON 1-Physical Geography of the Russian Core
ESSENTIAL QUESTION •How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The lowlands, plains, and plateaus of the Russian Core—Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus—helped shape human activity for centuries. In some cases, the harsh climate of the subregion made it a forbidding environment for people to settle and live in. Some were drawn to the few mountainous areas found in this region for their beauty and abundant natural resources despite difficult winters. Certainly the diverse topography of the Russian Core makes for some of the most beautiful geography in the world.
Landforms
How do interconnected mountain ranges and plains shape human activities in the Russian Core?
Russia has two notable mountain ranges, the Ural Mountains and the Caucasus Mountains. The other distinct landforms that dominate Russia are plains, hills, and plateaus. The Ural Mountains form a natural barrier between European Russia and Siberian Russia. Rich in iron ore and mineral fuels, they run in a north-to-south direction and span 1,230 miles (2,000 km) from the Arctic Ocean almost to the Caspian Sea. The Caucasus Mountains run east to west along the southwestern portion of the country, forming a natural barrier between Russia and countries to the south. The highest peak of the Caucasus Mountains is Mount Elbrus, which soars to 18,510 feet (5,642 m). It is the highest mountain in Russia and Europe. Mount Elbrus is also a popular tourist destination for skiing and mountain climbing.
To the west of the Ural Mountains is the Northern European Plain. The southern part of the plain has navigable waterways and rich, black soil calledchernozemthat supports agriculture. As a result, the majority of Russia’s population lives here. This vast plain is an extension of the plain that begins in France and stretches across Northwestern Europe. This eastern part of the plain is sometimes called the Russian Plain because as it reaches the Russian Core it broadens and becomes very expansive.
East of the Ural Mountains and extending to the Pacific Ocean are the vast stretches of plains and plateaus that make up much of Siberia. The West Siberian Plain covers about one-third of Siberia and is one of the largest lowlying flatlands in the world. It is known for its harsh continental climate and some of the world’s largest swamps and wetlands.
Ukraine is the second-largest country in Europe, occupying the southwest portion of the Russian Plain. Its two main landforms are vast plains and plateaus, with mountains found only in small areas in the west and south, accounting for less than five percent of the country’s landmass. In the south, the Isthmus of Perekop connects the Crimean Peninsula to the mainland.
Belarus is the smallest of the three Slavic republics that were once part of the Soviet Union. Belarus is a landlocked country and lies entirely on the Northern European Plain. Glacier scarring accounts for the flat terrain and some 11,000 lakes found in Belarus. There are also numerous swamps and rivers.
NamingWhich mountains form a natural boundary between European Russia and Siberian Russia?
Water Systems
What role do rivers of the Russian Core play in the economic activities of the region?
The combined waterways of the Russian Core have played important roles in its social and economic development from early times. The rivers and lakes of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus are key to the subregion’s growth, expansion, and success. Included in the water system is the Volga River, one of the world’s greatest rivers.
The Volga River and its many tributaries make up the Volga River system. Draining most of western Russia, the Volga travels 2,293 miles (3,690 km), making it the longest river in Europe. It starts in the Valdai Hills west of Moscow and travels across much of southern Russia before emptying into the Caspian Sea. The Volga River system is an important commercial, transportation, and hydroelectric resource for millions of Russians.
In Ukraine, the Dnieper River is the longest in the country, stretching 609 miles (908 km) beginning in the northwestern plains and traversing southeast to drain into the Black Sea. Other major waterways in Ukraine include the Southern Bug, Dniester, and even a small portion of the Danube River. Like the Volga in Russia, the Dnieper provides hydroelectric power and transportation as well as enabling commerce. But the most important function of these rivers collectively is to supply water to Ukrainians. This is done through an intricately constructed series of canals.
There are few freshwater lakes across Ukraine. Small saltwater lakes can be found in the Black Sea Lowland and Crimea, while limans, or large saline lakes, are found along the coast. In recent years Ukraine has created some artificial lakes and reservoirs.
Belarus was once an important passage route for inland navigation between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea. Each with its own tributaries, the largest rivers in the country include the Dnieper River, Berezina River, Pripyat’ River, Neman River, Bug River, and Western Dvina. Narach is the country’s largest lake, measuring 31 square miles (79.6 sq. km).
Waterways are also a prominent feature of Siberia. Rivers such as the Ob’, Irtysh, Yenisey, and Lena begin in the south of Siberia and flow northward, emptying into the Arctic Ocean. Ice in the Arctic Ocean blocks the rivers from reaching the ocean for much of the year. This is problematic in the springtime when the ice blockage prevents the surging rivers from reaching the ocean. Instead, the water floods out across the low-lying plains, causing extensive areas of swamps and floodlands.
One of the most renowned Siberian lakes is Lake Baikal. Located in southeast Russia, Lake Baikal is the oldest lake in the world (25 million years). It is also the deepest at 5,715 feet (1,742 m). It holds one-fifth of all unfrozen freshwater found on the planet. Known as the “Galapagos of Russia” because of its age and isolation, Lake Baikal has many unusual freshwater marine species, which are of exceptional value to scientists who study how species evolve.
IdentifyingWhich river provides western Russia with hydroelectric power?
Climate, Biomes, and Resources
What are the general climate conditions in much of the Russian Core?
Russia’s vast expanse of land extends from east to west, and all of the country lies in the same high latitude range. The result is that the dominant characteristic of the subregion is cold, snowy winters. There is, however, variation in how cold and how long the winters last, and the warmth and length of the summers. These variations in climate have shaped settlement patterns from the earliest times.
Climate Regions and Biomes
The tundra occupies the parts of the subregion that are farthest north and covers about 10 percent of Russia. Here, the sky stays dark for many weeks before and after the winter solstice that occurs around December 22 each year. Then, for several weeks during the summer, there is continuous sunlight. Its short growing season and thin, acidic soil lying just above thepermafrostlimit the kinds of plants that can grow there. Only mosses, lichens, algae, and dwarf shrubs thrive in the tundra.
South of the tundra lies the subarctic climate zone. While not as severe as the tundra climate, this zone only has four months of the year when the temperature rises above 50°F (10°C). The rest of the year is cold. The biome here is boreal forest, or taiga, which consists of broad expanses of coniferous evergreen trees.
Russia’s midlatitude climates, found in the western region, are not as severe and have milder winters and warmer summers. Although still relatively cold, these climates are where most Russians live and where much of Russia’s agricultural production takes place. The natural biome here is deciduous forest, although much of it has been cleared for agriculture and construction.
An area between the Black and Caspian Seas north of the Caucasus Mountains and along Russia’s border with Kazakhstan make up Russia’s steppe climate region. The steppe is a broad, open grassland in which seas of grass stretch to the horizon in every direction. The region’s chernozem soil supports the production of wheat, barley, rye, oats, and other crops. Sunflowers, mint, and beans also flourish here.
The southern part of Ukraine lies in a humid continental climate zone where warmer, humid air from the Atlantic Ocean makes the climate milder than farther north. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the warmer summer season, with the maximum precipitation occurring in late June and July.
Belarus has a humid continental climate moderated by maritime influences from the Atlantic Ocean. Average January temperatures range from the mid-20°s F (about −4°C) in the southwest to about 17°–19° F (about −8°C) in the northeast, but thaw days are frequent.Correspondingto these temperature differences, the frostfree period decreases from more than 170 days in the southwest to 130 days in the northeast. Maximum temperatures in July are generally in the mid-60°s F (about 18°C). Rainfall is moderate, although higher than over most of the vast Russian Plain.
Warmer air from the Atlantic Ocean moderates temperatures in western Russia. Most of Russia, however, lies well within the Eurasian landmass, far away from any moderating ocean influences. As a result, much of the country’s interior has more extreme variations in temperature and little precipitation. This climatic effect within the interior areas of a landmass is calledcontinentality.
Natural Resources
Russia’s physical geography benefits but alsochallengesits people. The country has an abundance of natural resources, including one-fifth of the world’s forests. Much of this wealth, however, lies in remote and climatically unfavorable areas and is difficult to tap or utilize. For example, Russia holds large petroleum deposits and 16 percent of the world’s coal reserves; however, the country’s biggest coalfields lie in remote areas of eastern Siberia. Russia is also a leading producer of natural gas, but much of itis located in northern Siberia. It also leads the world in nickel production and ranks among the top three producers of aluminum, gemstones, and platinum-group metals. Russia’s rivers make it a leading producer of hydroelectric power.
There are considerable resources of iron and other ores in parts of Ukraine. Other resources such as mountain wax, granite, and graphite are among the country’s most abundant. Ukraine also produces various salts and has a rich base for metallurgical, porcelain, and chemical industries.
Natural resources in Belarus include fuel sources such as peat, oil, and natural gas deposits. The country also contains small quantities of a variety of rocks and minerals, such as chalk, sand, clay, gravel, granite, and limestone.
ClassifyingHow does Russia’s location in the high latitudes affect its climate?
LESSON 2-Human Geography of the Russian Core
ESSENTIAL QUESTION •How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The Russian Revolution, the Soviet era, and the collapse of the Soviet Union have had profound effects on the Russian Core’s economies, politics, and people. This subregion’s countries have been forced to redefine who they are and to restructure their economies based on new ideas about political and economic systems.
History and Government
How have the Russian Core’s historical roots and modern ideas influenced the history and government of the region?
For most of the last century, Russia was part of the Soviet Union. Ruled by a Communist government, it challenged the United States and other democracies for global influence. Then the Soviet Union collapsed, and Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine emerged as independent countries.
Early History
Russia’s historical roots go back to theA.D.600s when Slav farmers, hunters, and fishers settled near the waterways of the Northern European Plain. The Slav communities were once organized into a loose union of city-states known as Kievan Rus. Ruled by princes, the leading city-state, Kiev, controlled a prosperous trading route, using Russia’s western rivers to link seaports and trade centers on the Baltic and Black Seas.
In the early 1200s, Mongols from Central Asia invaded Kiev and many of the Slav territories. Although the Mongols allowed the Slavs self-rule, they continued to control the area militarily for more than 200 years.
In the late 1600s,CzarPeter I—known as Peter the Great—came to power, determined to modernize Russia. Under his rule, Russia enlarged its territory, built a strong military, and developed trade with Western Europe. Toacquireseaports, Russia gained land along the Baltic Sea from Sweden. St. Petersburg became the new capital and a major port city. It was carved out of the wilderness along the Gulf of Finland, providing access to the Baltic Sea and giving Russia “a window on the West.”
During the late 1700s, Empress Catherine the Great continued to expand Russia’s empire and gained a long-desired warm-water port on the Black Sea. A later royal family of Russia, the Romanovs, continued expansion, resulting in acquisitions in both Eastern and Central Europe. These new territories and their people brought many non-Russians under Russian rule. A program known asRussificationwas begun to make those peoples more “Russian.”
Czar Alexander II’s limited reforms caused many former serfs to move to cities. There they faced the poor conditions and low wages of factory work. Non-Russian peoples from newly colonized regions of the Russian Empire faced prejudice. The government also insisted colonized people become like Russians. Russification became government policy, and people were required to speak Russian and follow Eastern Orthodox Christianity to receive jobs and benefits.
Beginning in 1891, under Czar Alexander III, Russia expanded into Siberia with the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Nearly 6,000 miles (9,700 km) long, it connected Moscow to Vladivostok. Once completed in 1916, the railroad opened Russia’s Asian eastern region to settlement.
Revolution and Change
One of the biggest proponents for greater economic equality was the German philosopher Karl Marx, the founder of modern communism. He advocated two principles: the public ownership of all land and means of production, and a classless society with an equal sharing of wealth. During World War I, which began in 1914, numerous strikes and demonstrations were organized by Russian workers who suffered hardships because of the war. They protested, demanding “bread and freedom.” This unresttriggered, or set off, the Russian Revolution of 1917. Czar Nicholas and his family were murdered, signaling the demise of Europe’s last absolute monarchy. What emerged was the Communist-controlled Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Union played a pivotal role in the Allied victory over Germany during World War II. Following the war, the Soviet Union occupied much of Eastern Europe. Several countries in the region were controlled assatellitesunder Communist rule. Following World War II, the Communist Soviet Union was engaged in a political and ideological war with the West, particularly the United States, in the Cold War. Tensions during this time brought the world to the brink of nuclear war and shaped modern economic and political policies.
The enormous costs of the Soviet Union’s military and inefficient economic policies weakened its role in the world. In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev, a reform-minded official, became the leader of the Soviet Union. He instituted a policy of economic restructuring calledperestroika(pehr•uh•STROY•kuh) and a policy of greater political openness calledglasnost(GLAZ•nohst). Political reform was set in motion. Satellites controlled by the Soviet Union began to replace their Communist governments in 1989. In 1991 a failed coup led to the collapse of the Soviet government and regions of the country began declaring their independence. Today there are 15 independent countries, including Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus.