Land Degradation in South Africa

PREFACE

The United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCCD) arose out of the United Nations Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The UNCCD acknowledges that about 30 % of the total land area of the world is affected by desertification, including 73 % of the drylands of Africa. Under the terms of the UNCCD, individual countries, which are affected by dryland degradation, and which ratify the UNCCD, commit themselves to prepare and implement a National Action Programmes to address the problem. A central principle of the UNCCD is that it is to be undertaken through popular participation at all levels with a strong focus on securing the environment, improving food security, reducing poverty, and creating alternative livelihoods for communities living in the drylands of the world.

South Africa signed the convention in June 1995 and ratified it in September 1997. It has now become a legally binding document, which commits South Africa to producing a National Action Programme over the next several years. The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEA&T) has been tasked with the responsibility of facilitating the process. The Department of Agriculture and the Department of Foreign Affairs have also been very involved in the process to date and will continue to be so in the future. The non-governmental sector and civil society contributions have been coordinated by the Environmental Monitoring Group (EMG), who have been partners in the process from its inception.

As a first step in the process of developing a National Action Programme (NAP) DEA&T commissioned a study of the land degradation debate in South Africa. Several research institutes were invited to tender for the review in June 1996.

The National Botanical Institute (NBI) and the Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS) in the School of Government, at the University of the Western Cape were successful in their joint submission, which was presented to the South African Desertification Reference Group in September 1996. With the aid of generous financial support from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, the NBI and PLAAS team began the study officially in April 1997. The terms of reference and objectives of the project were specified as follows:

“The overall objective of the research Project is to conduct an assessment or audit of the desertification problem in South Africa, as part of the country’s obligations under the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD). The specific objectives are as follows:

• To conduct a literature review of the scientific and socio-economic debates around the desertification problem in South Africa;
• To create a map of the status of desertification in South Africa, based on a broad consensus view of the problem;
• To develop an easily-accessible and annotated bibliography of the desertification debate in South Africa;
• To compile an annotated bibliography of the key organizations involved in dryland degradation research;
• To outline a monitoring programme with appropriate indicators of desertification which could feed into the National Action Programme;
• To make a significant contribution to the writing of the White Paper on desertification.”

Several specialist contract workers were employed for the first part of the study. Each had specific responsibilities, such as compiling the bibliography and directory. In the spirit of the UNCCD, which encourages popular participation in the process of developing a National Action Programme, we also embarked, almost immediately, on a series of regional workshops throughout the country. Their primary aim was to develop a consensus map of degradation in South Africa. The National Department of Agriculture, through the Directorate of Resource Conservation and the provincial Departments of Agriculture were very supportive of the initiative. The workshops were held largely with agricultural extension officers and resource conservation technicians, and 453 people participated in the 34 workshops held between June 1997 and February 1998. The success of this report is due largely to the enthusiastic participation of the Department of Agriculture staff in sharing their knowledge of the magisterial districts of South Africa.

The results from the workshops enabled the research team to investigate in more detail, the process of land degradation through a series of comprehensive case studies in several key magisterial districts. During 1998, field trips in some of the most severely degraded communal areas was undertaken as well as in two commercial magisterial districts.

This final report comprises, primarily, the literature review of the scientific and socio-economic debates around the desertification problem in South Africa. It also, however, incorporates the results of the 34 workshops and presents consensus maps of soil and vegetation degradation where appropriate. Information derived from the case studies, is also used to inform the conclusions of this final report.

The annotated bibliography is presented elsewhere and comprises 1 964 references, of which 1 219 (62 %) have abstracts or summaries attached. A controlled list of 128 key words was used to assign one or more key words to each reference in the literature database. The bibliography will be available on the Internet at the DEA&T desertification Website, which is in the process of being created.

The directory of key organizations involved in South African dryland degradation research will also be available on the Internet at the same address. It is comprised of a database of 53 projects undertaken by 109 organisations with 169 contact persons working for the participating organisations.

Besides the products listed above, several additional publications have emerged during the course of the project. The full complement of products arising from this project is as follows:

1. Arendse, A., Dannhauser, P., Penny, R. & Hoffman, M. T. 1999. South African desertification directory. Unpublished report. National Botanical Institute, Cape Town.

1. Hoffman, M.T. (In press). Agricultural and ecological perspectives of vegetation dynamics and desertification in the semi-arid Karoo, South Africa. In: Arnalds, O. & Archer, S.(eds). Rangeland desertification. Kluwer. “Advances in Vegetation Sciences” series. (Proceedings of conference on Rangeland Desertification held in Reykjavik, Iceland, 16-19 September, 1997).

1. Hoffman, M.T. & O’Connor, T.G. Vegetation change over 40 years in the Weenen/Muden area, KwaZulu-Natal: evidence from photo-panoramas. African Journal of Range & Forage Science. (Submitted 9 October 1998).

1. Hoffman, M.T., Lindeque, L. & Ntshona, Z.N. (In press). Land degradation in commercial and communal areas of South Africa: Preliminary results from a rapid participatory appraisal. Proceedings of the Desert Margins Program Workshop on Appropriate Restoration Technologies in South Africa held in Potchefstroom, 23-26 March 1998.

1. Hoffman, M. T., Lindeque, L., Mapuma, M., Nel, L. & Rayi, T. 1999. A rapid appraisal of the status of land degradation in the Eastern Cape. Unpublished report. National Botanical Institute, Kirstenbosch, Cape Town.

1. Hoffman, M. T., Todd, S. W., Ntshona, Z. N. & Turner, S. D. 1999. Land degradation in South Africa. Unpublished Final Report. National Botanical Institute and Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies, Cape Town.

1. Lambey, S., Stewart, S. M., Majal, S. & Hoffman, M. T. 1999. Bibliography of South African desertification literature. Unpublished database. National Botanical Institute, Cape Town.

1. Lindeque, L. 1998. A detailed case study of resource degradation/desertification in the Reitz magisterial district. Unpublished Report. Directorate of Resource Conservation, Department of Agriculture, Pretoria.

1. Ntshona, Z. N. 1998. Notes from detailed case studies in the communal areas of South Africa. Unpublished report. Programme for Land & Agrarian Studies, University of the Western Cape, Cape Town.

Finally, when preparing to write the final report, the main authors realized that there were certain areas of the degradation debate that would require input from specialist investigators. Several additional authors were thus approached to contribute to specific sections of the final report. Appropriate acknowledgement and responsibility for different sections of the report are detailed in the summarized Table of Contents below and at the beginning of each chapter or section.

Chapter 1: Land degradation in context (M. T. Hoffman)

Chapter 2: General Approach (M. T. Hoffman)

Chapter 3: The South African environment (M. T. Hoffman & S. W. Todd)

Chapter 4: The degradation of surface water resources(C. S. Snaddon)

Chapter 5: The degradation of groundwater resources(K.O. Bang & C. Stimie)

Chapter 6: Soil degradation(G. Garland, M. T. Hoffman & S. W. Todd)

Chapter 7: Veld degradation(M. T. Hoffman & S. W. Todd)

7.5 Alien plants (D. le Maitre, M. T. Hoffman & S. W. Todd)

Chapter 8: A combined index of degradation (M. T. Hoffman & S. W. Todd)

Chapter 9: Causes of degradation

9.1 The role of climate (M. T. Hoffman & S.W. Todd)

9.2 The role of people (S. D. Turner & Z. Ntshona)

Chapter 10: Correlates and models of degradation (M. T. Hoffman & S. W. Todd)

Chapter 11: Conclusions (M. T. Hoffman & S. D. Turner)

M. Timm Hoffman (Project Leader)

National Botanical Institute

Kirstenbosch Research Centre

Cape Town

January 1999.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people have been involved in this project, at different stages of its progress.

Brian Huntley (CEO, National Botanical Institute), Mike Rutherford (Deputy Director: Research, NBI) and Ben Cousins (Director: PLAAS) have all been very generous in their support of this project. Their continued interest and confidence in the research team has been greatly appreciated.

The UNCCD is all about partnerships and without the generous financial contribution of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada, this project would not have been possible. In particular, Wardie Leppan and Hartmut Krugmann from IDRC have been very helpful throughout the study. They have provided excellent support without constraining the research team in any way.

While the main authors of this report have physically put the words, tables and figures together in a single document, many others have been busy in the “engine room” of the project for the last 22 months. The dedicated and energetic labour of Adele Arendse, Saadia Lambey, Sulaiman Mujal, Ashia Petersen, Helga Pieper-Hoeweling and Sandy Stewart provided much of the background information upon which the report could be based. In particular, the directory and bibliography have been their primary responsibilities and they have done an excellent job of synthesising a very scattered collection of references and research projects. Craig Hilton-Taylor, from NBI also provided information and text on the impact of veld degradation on botanical diversity. June Juritz from the Department of Mathematical Statistics at the University of Cape provided statistical advice to the project and inspired confidence in us during the writing of Chapter 10.

The contributions of the National Botanical Institute’s administrative staff, to the success of this study, are also acknowledged. Ingrid Nanni and Helena Parenzee from the Kirstenbosch Research Centre, have been particularly patient and helpful.

The staff from DEA&T have been similarly helpful. Wilma Lutsch, Nelly Kole and especially, Roben Penny have taken a keen interest in the work. Roben has been instrumental in our progress and provided much of the information around the UNCCD and the South African involvement in the convention. Staff of the Environmental Monitoring Group (EMG), and in particular Noel Oettle, have played an important role in keeping the report writers focused in the most important areas. Phyllis Danhauser has played a similarly supportive role in making us realise that there is another audience outside of the rather narrow circle of academics.

Clearly this project would not have been possible without the active support of the Department of Agriculture. The National Department of Agriculture, especially the Directorate of Resource Conservation, as well as all nine of the provincial departments have been generously supportive of the project. The excellent role played by Lehman Lindeque from the Directorate of Resource Conservation, in co-ordinating the regional workshops deserves special mention. Additional support from the Director: Ms Njabulo Nduli, Keith Taylor, Pierre du Plessis and Heine Lindeman should also be noted. Terry Newby from the Institute for Soil, Climate and Water has provided excellent support from his research section and his willingness to assist the project is much appreciated.

We thank all of the agricultural extension workers and resource conservation technicians who gave of their time and knowledge during the workshops. Resource conservation is impossible without an active extension and planning service. The grave state of affairs that currently exists within this section of the Department of Agriculture deserves the highest priority.

The agricultural and ecological research community also gave generously of their time and energy. In some cases individual provinces made several agricultural personnel available to support the research team. For example, in the Eastern Cape, Felix Hobson, Matemba Mapuma, Louis Nel, and Themba Rayi accompanied the research team to each of the workshop venues and helped in the facilitation process. Similarly, Kelson Camp and Ron Bennet guided the research team in the KwaZulu-Natal workshops, and both provided very valuable additional research material for background information and use in the final report. In the Western Cape, Ben Saaiman, Pieter Venter and Oom Japie Agenbag provided invaluable support during the four workshops held in this province. Shepherd Madala and Llewellyn Gush from the Environment and Development Agency provided generous assistance during a field trip to Herschel district as did Susie Vetter and Mtozami Goqwana. Tim O’Connor and William Bond both provided valuable advice on specific components of the project. Tim’s contribution to the matched photography study on bush encroachment in the Weenen-Muden area is deeply appreciated. It has been helpful to talk to Rick Rohde about many issues concerning the commercial/ communal area debate in southern Africa and Rick also provided useful comment on this report. Charlie Shackleton helped track down a few obscure references and was most helpful to the team. Geordie Ractliffe, of the Freshwater Research Unit, reviewed a draft of the chapter on freshwater resources, and provided useful comments and input.

Finally, a project of this nature demands that a great deal of time is spent away from home. To the partners and children of members of the project team – thanks for your support and understanding. It will be made up to you. Sometime. We promise.

DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to all who have made it their business, over the last century, to interpret the signs of degradation and speak out for what they believe has happened to South Africa’s natural resources.

1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE / i
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS / iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS / iv
SUMMARY / viii

SECTION I: CONTEXT AND METHODOLOGY

1 / LAND DEGRADATION IN CONTEXT
1.1 / Objective and outline of this review…………………………….……………………………...... / 1
1.2 / Land degradation in South Africa: a brief historical overview….…………………..…………... / 2
1.3 / The UNCCD and South Africa…………………………..……………..………………………... / 5
2 / GENERAL APPROACH
2.1 / Definitions…………………………………...…………………………………………………... / 8
2.2 / A conceptual framework……………………………………………………………………….... / 8
2.3 / Sources of information………………………………………………………………….……….. / 9
2.3.1 / Workshop protocol………………………………………………………………………………. / 10
2.3.2 / Literature review……………………………………………………………………………….... / 15
2.3.3 / Case studies…………………………………………………………………………………….... / 15
2.3.4 / Magisterial district statistics……………………………………………………………………... / 16
3 / THE SOUTH AFRICAN ENVIRONMENT AND LAND USE
3.1 / The biophysical environment……………………………………………………………………. / 17
3.2 / Affected drylands………………………………………………………………………………... / 18
3.3 / Provinces and magisterial districts………………………………………………………………. / 18
3.4 / Land tenure: Commercial and communal areas…………………………………………………. / 20
3.5 / Land use………………………………………………………………………………………….. / 23
3.5.1 / Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….... / 23
3.5.2 / Land use patterns……………………………………………………………………………..….. / 23
3.5.3 / Area trend………………………………………………………………………………………... / 26
3.5.4 / Intensity trend……………………………………………………………………………………. / 32

SECTION II: THE SEVERITY OF DEGRADATION

4 / DEGRADATION OF SURFACE WATER RESOURCES
4.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 37
4.2 / Causes and effects of degradation……………………………………………………………….. / 38
4.2.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 38
4.2.2 / Degradation of the riparian zone………………………………………………………………… / 38
4.2.3 / Pollution…………………………………………………………………………………………. / 41
4.2.4 / Erosion and sedimentation………………………………………………………………………. / 45
4.2.5 / River regulation………………………………………………………………………………….. / 47
4.2.6 / Habitat loss………………………………………………………………………………………. / 49
4.2.7 / Population pressure and water use………………………………………………………………. / 49
4.2.8 / Biotic change…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 49
4.3 / Measurement of surface water degradation……………………………………………………... / 51
4.3.1 / Water quality…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 51
4.3.2 / Physical degradation……………………………………………………………………………... / 52
4.3.3 / Biotic change…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 53
4.3.4 / Overview of surface water degradation………………………………………………………….. / 54
4.4 / Extent of Degradation……………………………………………………………………………. / 54
4.4.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 54
4.4.2 / Degradation of the riparian zone………………………………………..……………………….. / 54
4.4.3 / Pollution…………………………………………………………………………………………. / 56
4.4.4 / Erosion and sedimentation………………………………………………………………………. / 57
4.4.5 / River regulation………………………………………………………………………………….. / 57
4.4.6 / Habitat loss………………………………………………………………………………………. / 57
4.4.7 / Population pressure and water use………………………………………………………………. / 57
4.4.8 / Biotic change…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 58
4.4.9 / Overview of surface water degradation………………………………………………………….. / 58
4.5 / Government Intervention………………………………………………………………………… / 58
4.5.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 58
4.5.2 / Degradation of the riparian zone………………………………………..……………………….. / 59
4.5.3 / Pollution…………………………………………………………………………………………. / 59
4.5.4 / Erosion, sedimentation and soils………………………………………………………………… / 59
4.5.5 / River regulation………………………………………………………………………………….. / 60
4.5.6 / Habitat loss………………………………………………………………………………………. / 60
4.5.7 / Population pressure and water use………………………………………………………………. / 60
4.5.8 / Biotic change…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 60
5 / DEGRADATION OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
5.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 61
5.2 / Causes of groundwater degradation……………………………………………………………... / 62
5.2.1 / Reduction in recharge as a result of changing land use…………………………………………. / 62
5.2.2 / Domestic and industrial landfill…………………………………………………………………. / 62
5.2.3 / Informal settlements……………………………………………………………………………... / 62
5.2.4 / Agricultural activities……………………………………………………………………………. / 63
5.3 / Occurrence and extent of the problem…………………………………………………………… / 63
5.3.1 / Reduction in the quantity of ground water………………………………………………………. / 63
5.3.2 / Degradation in the quality of ground water……………………………………………………… / 65
5.4 / Effects and problem……………………………………………………………………………… / 66
5.5 / Government strategies and legislation…………………………………………………………… / 67
5.6 / Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………….. / 68
6 / SOIL DEGRADATION
6.1 / Soil degradation in South Africa: an overview………………………………………………….. / 69
6.1.1 / Is soil degradation important?………..……………………………………………………….… / 69
6.1.2 / Soil degradation as an agricultural and development Issue……………………………………... / 72
6.2 / Effects of soil degradation…………………………………………………………………….… / 72
6.2.1 / Some general effects……………………………………………………………………………... / 72
6.2.2 / Plant growth and biodiversity………………………………………………………………….... / 72
6.2.3 / Reservoir siltation, eutrophication and river ecosystems………………………………………... / 73
6.2.4 / Effects on estuaries………………………………………………………………………………. / 73
6.2.5 / Sustainable land use practices and food security…………………………………………….….. / 73
6.2.6 / Economic implications…………………………………………………………………………... / 73
6.3 / Government interventions and societal response………………………………………………... / 74
6.4 / Types of soil degradation…………………………………………………………………….….. / 76
6.4.1 / Classifications……………………………………………………………………………………. / 76
6.4.2 / Sheet erosion…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 77
6.4.3 / Rill, gully and donga erosion…………………………………………………………………….. / 78
6.4.4 / Loss of topsoil by wind…………………………………………………………………………. / 80
6.4.5 / Deflation hollows and dunes…………………………………………………………………..… / 80
6.4.6 / Overblowing……………………………………………………………………………………... / 81
6.4.7 / Salinization……………………………………………………………………………………… / 81
6.4.8 / Acidification……………………………………………………………………………………... / 81
6.4.9 / Waterlogging…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 81
6.4.10 / Soil Pollution…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 81
6.4.11 / Soil Mining………………………………………………………………………………………. / 81
6.4.12 / Compaction and crusting………………………………………………………………………... / 81
6.5 / Causes and controlling factors of soil degradation………………………………………………. / 82
6.5.1 / The political and socio-economic setting……………………………………………………….. / 82
6.5.2 / Land use…………………………………………………………………………………………. / 84
6.5.3 / Soil characteristics………………………………………………………………………………. / 86
6.5.4 / Slope……………………………………………………………………………………………... / 87
6.5.5 / Rainfall…………………………………………………………………………………………... / 87
6.6 / Agricultural extension officers’ perceptions of soil degradation: Workshop results………….… / 89
6.6.1 / A general appraisal……………………………………………………………………………..... / 89
6.6.2 / Occurrence and extent of the problem…………………………………………………………... / 90
6.7 / Agricultural versus science: grounds for a perceptual comparison?…………………………….. / 103
7 / VEGETATION DEGRADATION
7.1 / Veld degradation in South Africa: an overview…………………………………………………. / 108
7.2 / Types of veld degradation……………………………………………………………………….. / 111
7.3 / Loss of cover and change in species composition (or “veld condition”)………………………... / 112
7.3.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 112
7.3.2 / Measurement of veld condition………………………………………………………………….. / 114
7.3.3 / Occurrence………………………………………………………………………………………. / 116
7.3.4 / Causes, process and rate…………………………………………………………………………. / 117
7.3.5 / Effects……………………………………………………………………………………………. / 118
7.3.5.1 / Effects on species diversity, plant cover and species composition……………………………… / 118
7.3.5.2 / Effects on ecosystem processes………………………………………………………………….. / 121
7.3.5.3 / Effects on carrying capacity……………………………………………………………………... / 122
7.3.6 / Intervention strategies / 122
7.3.6.1 / Research and development into veld management systems……………………………………... / 123
7.3.6.2 / Stock reduction scheme………………………………………………………………………….. / 123
7.3.6.3 / National Grazing Strategy……………………………………………………………………….. / 124
7.3.6.4 / Drought-assistance schemes……………………………………………………………………... / 125
7.3.7 / Closing remarks………………………………………………………………………………….. / 126
7.4 / Bush encroachment…………………………….………………………………………………... / 126
7.4.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 126
7.4.2 / Occurrence……………………………………………………………………………………….. / 126
7.4.3 / Process and rate of encroachment……………………………………………………………….. / 130
7.4.4 / Major causes of bush encroachment……………………………………………………………... / 130
7.4.5 / Effects of bush encroachment…………………………………………………………………… / 132
7.4.6 / Methods and costs to control bush encroachment………………………………………………. / 133
7.4.7 / Government intervention schemes…………………………………………………………….… / 134
7.4.8 / A photographic essay of bush encroachment………………………………………………….… / 135
7.5 / Alien plants……………………………………………………………………………………… / 139
7.5.1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………… / 139
7.5.2 / Occurrence and extent…………………………………………………………………………… / 139
7.5.2.1 / Extent of invasions………………………………………………………………………………. / 139
7.5.2.1.1 / National survey of impacts on water resources…………….…………………………………… / 139
7.5.2.1.2 / National desertification audit: Workshop results………………………………………………... / 141
7.5.2.1.3 / Other sources of data……………………………………………………………………………. / 142
7.5.2.2 / Most important species………………………………………………………………………….. / 143
7.5.3 / Process and rate………………………………………………………………………………….. / 146
7.5.3.1 / Invasion processes………………………………………………………………………………. / 146
7.5.3.2 / Factors determining invasion……………………………………………………………………. / 146
7.5.3.3 / Rate of spread……………………………………………………………………………………. / 147
7.5.4 / Causes of the problem…………………………………………………………………………… / 147
7.5.4.1 / Agriculture and horticulture……………………………………………………………………... / 147
7.5.4.2 / Afforestation…………………………………………………………………………………….. / 149
7.5.5 / Effects of the problem…………………………………………………………………………… / 149
7.5.5.1 / Water resources and river systems………………………………………………………………. / 149
7.5.5.2 / Ecosystem processes and biodiversity…………………………………………………………… / 151
7.5.6 / Government intervention schemes and strategies……………………………………………….. / 151
7.5.6.1 / Concern about invading plants…………………………………………………………………... / 152
7.5.6.2 / Legislation……………………………………………………………………………………….. / 152
7.5.6.3 / State control programmes and subsidies………………………………………………………… / 152
7.5.6.4 / Subsidies…………………………………………………………………………………………. / 153
7.5.6.5 / Biocontrol programmes.…………………………………………………………………………. / 153
7.5.6.7 / Working for Water programme………………………………………………………………...... / 153
7.5.7 / Conclusions ……………………………………………………………………………………... / 154
7.6 / Deforestation ……………………………………………………………………………………. / 155
7.6.1 / Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………... / 155
7.6.2 / Occurrence ………………………………………………………………………………….…… / 155
7.6.3 / Process and rate of deforestation………………………………………………………………… / 156
7.6.4 / Major causes of deforestation……………………………………………………………………. / 158
7.6.5 / Effects of deforestation…………………………………………………………………………... / 158
7.6.6 / Intervention strategies…………………………………………………………………………… / 159
7.7 / Other……………………………………………………………………………………………... / 160
8 / A COMBINED INDEX OF DEGRADATION
8.1 / General discussion……………………………………………………………………………….. / 162

SECTION III: CAUSES AND CORRELATES OF DEGRADATION