§ 19 Ground Stone Tools
Chapter 19: Ground Stone Tools
by
Carolyn Elliott-Xenophontos
1
§ 19 Ground Stone Tools
§ 19.1 Typology
The pie chart in Fig. 7.1 shows that ground stone artefacts from OK = safe deposits (e.g. on building floors, pits and potspreads) form a substantial proportion of the total number of artefacts (=1,664), disregarding material from surveyed cadastral plots and surface finds (=354). The majority of artefacts came from M = mixed deposits (e.g. general layers and fill in buildings, wall collapse, surface make-up, disturbed layers and pit fills. Artefacts from disturbed (D) and contaminated (C) general layers, often just below the surface, were normally registered, and always registered if of interesting rock type or if the tool ranked as rare or strange. Material from disturbed graves was also kept.
When considering ground stone by period, the limited amount from Periods 1A, 2 and 5 (see Fig. 7.2) demands a more detailed examination in the text, while the large number of artefacts from Period 4 (=755) lends itself to a general overview, giving a clearer picture of how the inhabitants of Kissonerga were occupied in the LChal. The substantial amount of artefacts from Periods 3A and 3B presents an extremely varied and sometimes novel range of implements in this vibrant MChal phase. The 86 finds dated to Periods 2?, 3A?, 3B?, 4? and 5? are included in the totals without distinction from the unqueried periods. Their numbers, in brackets, are as follows: Period 2? (3), Period 3A? (22), Period 3B? (16), Period 4? (25) and Period 5? (20). Material from the transition phases 1/2, 2/3A, 3A/3B, 3/4, 4/5 and 4/mod are not included in Fig. 7.2.
Artefacts are listed by period in Table 19.1 and are divided into their safe (OK), mixed (M), disturbed (D) and contaminated (C) find status. For convenience, the order here follows general functional groupings rather than the alphabetical order of the Catalogue (§ 19.5).
Table 19.1. Registered and inventoried (5000 series) stone artefacts by period
Period 1AOKMDC
pounder2---
cupped stone 1---
perforated stone 1---
bowl *21---
basin1---
jar1---
miscellaneous2---
Total 29 29000
* includes total of 27 fragments
Period 1/2?OKMDC
hammerstone/grinder-1--
rubbing stone-1--
bowl -1--
Total 30300
Period 2 OKMDC
axe1---
adze -2--
hammerstone12--
hammerstone/grinder-3--
grinder-1--
pestle 1---
pounder11--
pounder/grinder32--
rubbing stone15--
rubbing stone/pounder1---
polisher -1--
rubber 11--
quern3---
cupped stone 54--
mortar -2--
grinding block -1--
pivot stone1---
perforated stone 11--
socketed stone 1---
notched stone-2--
macehead -1--
post pad/pot stand -1--
bowl 3*21--
dish 11--
jar-2--
pebble -1--
miscellaneous-2--
Total 82 255700
* includes total of 56 fragments
Period 2/3AOKMDC
adze -2--
chisel ---1
flaked tool---1
hammerstone13--
hammerstone/grinder23--
pounder14--
rubbing stone34--
polisher -1--
burnisher-1--
rubber 1---
quern1---
cupped stone 23--
mortar 1---
pivot stone1---
perforated stone 1---
bowl -13-2
basin1---
cup1---
dish -2--
jar---1
pebble -1-1
miscellaneous10--1
Total 70 263707
Period 3AOKMDC
axe49-4
adze 611-3
chisel 26-1
flaked tool19-4
axe-shaped grinder 21-1
hammerstone710-2
hammerstone/grinder18-1
grinder131-
pecking stone11--
pestle 41512
pounder515-4
pounder/grinder-4--
rubbing stone315-2
rubbing stone/flaked tool1---
rubbing stone/hammerstone-2-1
rubbing stone/pestle 1---
rubbing stone/pounder21-1
polisher 32-1
burnisher241-
rubber 417-1
quern64-2
cupped stone 61311
palette-2--
anvil12-1
mortar -1--
grinding block 1---
pivot stone12--
perforated stone 24--
bowl 624-1
basin11--
dish 1---
jar-6-1
platter-2--
pot lid912--
jar stopper22--
pebble -1--
miscellaneous46--
crystal-1--
pigment22-1
Total 34992218435
Period 3A/3B OKMDC
axe-1--
adze -1-1
flaked tool-8--
flaked tool blanks -6--
hammerstone-1-1
pestle ---1
pounder-1--
rubbing stone/hammerstone---1
rubbing stone/pounder1---
polisher ---1
rubber 1---
perforated stone -1--
bowl ---3
pebble -1--
pigment---1
Total 31 22009
Period 3BOKMDC
axe-622
adze 1211
chisel 2121
flaked tool24--
axe-shaped grinder 33--
hammerstone162-
hammerstone/grinder431-
grinder11--
pecking stone-2--
pestle 623-
pounder10913
rubbing stone9612
rubbing stone/pounder-4--
rubbing stone/grinder---1
polisher 15--
burnisher-1-1
rubber 8821
quern45-1
cupped stone 67-3
palette-2--
anvil31-1
mortar ---1
grinding block -1--
pivot stone22--
perforated stone -2--
socketed stone -1--
notched stone--1-
macehead?1---
bowl 2412
cup11--
jar11--
pot lid42--
jar stopper2---
pebble 62--
miscellaneous4-11
pigment13--
Total 22185971821
Period 3/4OKMDC
axe 12-1
adze---2
chisel-111
flaked tool -1-1
axe-shaped grinder1--1
hammerstone/grinder -2--
pecking stone -2--
pestle-1--
pounder -5--
pounder/grinder -1--
rubbing stone -11-
polisher---1
burnisher -1--
quern ---1
cupped stone1212
mortar1---
sling stone?-1--
basin -1--
jar -1--
Total 39422310
Period 3B/4 OKMDC
axe 1---
adze3---
hammerstone -1--
pestle-4--
pounder -2--
rubbing stone -1--
rubber-2--
cupped stone-3--
grinding block1---
Total 1851300
Period 4 OKMDC
axe5932111
adze 243725
chisel 314-4
flaked tool22-2
axe-shaped grinder 15711
hammerstone1019-3
hammerstone/grinder241311
grinder6--1
pecking stone32-4
pestle 1931116
pounder2440-12
pounder/grinder25--
rubbing stone152521
rubbing stone/hammerstone-1--
rubbing stone/pounder-2-6
polisher 810--
burnisher-2--
rubber 196-2
quern156-2
cupped stone 2621-5
palette21-1
anvil51--
mortar 5-1-
grinding block 5---
pivot stone101-2
perforated stone 23--
socketed stone -1--
pot stand2---
notched stone-1--
sling stone? -1--
drill handle?-1--
bowl 81624
basin2-1-
cup-3--
dish 21--
jar---1
pot lid24--
jar stopper21-3
pebble 63--
miscellaneous45--
pigment33-1
Total 7553343211288
Period 4/5 OKMDC
axe---3
adze ---5
axe-shaped grinder ---1
pestle ---4
pounder---1
rubbing stone-1-1
burnisher---1
rubber ----
perforated stone ---1
dish ---1
Total 19 01018
Period 4/Mod OKMDC
axe---1
adze ---2
hammerstone/grinder---1
polisher ---1
rubber ---1
quern---1
cupped stone ---1
perforated stone ---1
Total 90009
Period 5 OKMDC
axe---3
adze -1-4
chisel --11
flaked tool---3
axe-shaped grinder ---1
hammerstone---1
hammerstone/grinder-1--
pestle 1-13
pounder--43
rubbing stone---1
polisher ---4
burnisher-1--
perforated stone --1-
bowl --11
jar stopper--1-
miscellaneous---1
Total 39 13926
Cadastral plots (surface)0
axe58
adze 49
chisel 16
flaked tool14
axe-shaped grinder 9
hammerstone12
hammerstone/grinder10
pecking stone2
pestle 27
pounder25
pounder/grinder3
rubbing stone4
rubbing stone/pounder2
rubbing stone/hammerstone1
polisher 14
burnisher3
rubber 7
quern3
cupped stone 19
anvil1
mortar 4
grinding block 1
pivot stone4
perforated stone 5
macehead 3
bowl 33
basin1
cup2
dish 3
jar7
pot lid2
jar stopper4
pebble 1
miscellaneous4
pigment1
Total354
1
§ 19 Ground Stone Tools
Table 19.2. Distribution of ground stone artefacts by period
Artefact class1A1/2?22/3A3A3A/3B3B3/43B/444/54/mod50Total
adze --222025236852549165
anvil----4-5--6---116
axe--1-171104110331358202
axe-shaped grinder----4-62-241-1947
basin1--12--1-3---19
bowl 21124153139--30--233169
burnisher---17-21-21-1318
chisel ---19-63-21--21658
crystal----1------1
cup---1--2--3---28
cupped stone 1-9521-166352-1-19133
dish --221----31--312
drill handle?------1----1
flaked tool---114862-6--31454
flaked tool blanks-----6------6
grinder--1-5-2--7----15
grinding block --1-1-1-15---110
hammerstone--341929-132--11283
hammerstone/grinder-13510-82-39-111080
jar1-217-21-1---722
jar stopper----4-2--6--1417
macehead --1---1------35
miscellaneous2-21110-6--9--1445
mortar --211-11-6---416
notched stone--2---1--1----4
palette----2-2--4----8
pebble --12118--9---123
pecking stone----2-22-9---217
perforated stone1-21612--5111526
pestle --1-2211114674-527143
pigment----514--7---118
pivot stone--113-4--13---426
platter----2------2
polisher --116161-18-141453
post pad/pot stand--1------1
pot lid----21-6--6---235
pot stand------2----2
pounder2-252412352761-725173
pounder/grinder--5-4--1-7---320
quern--3112-101-23-1-354
rubber --2122119-227-1-782
rubbing stone-16720-1821432-14105
rubbing st/flaked tool----1------1
rubbing stone/grinder------1------1
rubbing st/hammerstone----31---1---16
rubbing stone/pestle----1------1
rubbing stone/pounder--1-414--8---220
sling stone? ------1-1----2
socketed stone --1---1--1----3
Totals2938270349312213918755199393542,018
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§ 19 Ground Stone Tools
Table 19.2 shows the total number of tool types in alphabetical order throughout all periods regardless of unit status.
Incised grooves occur on the sides of 23 axes (Table 7.1). If there are two grooves they appear on the same side of the axe; only one, KM 1868, has one groove on each side. If there is a single clearly cut groove and attempts at others, the axe appears in the 2+ column (e.g. KM 1769). Other tools also have incised grooves: chisel KM 2130 with two incised lines, axe-shaped grinder KM 377 with two incised lines on one side, pestle KM 1608 with two incised lines, and flaked tool KM 3416 (also used as a grinder) with two grooves and less distinct attempts at others on one side.
§ 19.2 Spatial distribution of ground stone artefacts
The majority of stone artefacts were found in buildings, not only in occupation fill but also in secondary use in stone settings for large storage jars, built into walls and hearths and in paving and floor make-up. Many others came from pits and pit fills, including important groups of tools cached there. A significant number of a limited range of artefacts occurred in graves and grave fills.
1
§ 19 Ground Stone Tools
Table 19.3. Ground stone artefacts found in pits and pit fills by period
Artefact class 1A1/2?22/3A3A3A/3B3B3/43B/445Total
adze --2-4-1--9-16
anvil----2-1----3
axe--1-8----27-36
axe-shaped grinder ----3----3-6
basin1--1---1---3
bowl 21111-812--9-53
chisel ---11-11-4-8
cup---1-----2-3
cupped stone 1-925-22310-34
dish --1-1----1-3
flaked tool---13----2-6
grinder--1-2------3
grinding block --1-1------2
hammerstone--31611-14-17
hammerstone/grinder--324-4--2116
jar1-1-4-1----7
jar stopper----4-1--1-6
macehead --1------1
miscellaneous2-2102-3--3-22
mortar --21-----1-4
notched stone--2------1-3
palette----2------2
pebble --1---6----7
pecking stone------2-2
perforated stone 1-111------4
pestle --1-9-5-410-29
pigment----211--2-6
pivot stone--1-1------2
polisher ----2-1--3-6
post pad/pot stand --1------1
pot lid---18-1--1-20
pounder2-217-8-15-26
pounder/grinder--5------2-7
quern--312-3--1-10
rubber --219-6-22-22
rubbing stone--5311-41110-35
rubbing stone/flaked tool----1------1
rubbing stone/hammerstone-----1---1-2
rubbing stone/pounder--1------1
socketed stone --1------1
Totals 29164271234525121181436
1
§ 19 Ground Stone Tools
§19.2.1 Artefacts from pits and pit fills (see also §3.8 and 15.5)
The distribution of artefact types by period is given in simplified form in Table 19.3.
Periods 1A and 1/2
The 29 registered finds from Period 1A pits 1667 and 1679 in the Upper Terrace have been described in § 7.2 and are not repeated here. There is a single bowl fragment from pit 1680 which is tentatively dated to the transitional 1/2 phase.
Period 2
A total of 35 artefacts were recovered from 9 pits and 29 from 6 pit fills. Pit 1599 is exceptional with 15 artefacts which, disregarding the useless fragments (3 bowls, a perforated stone and an axe), comprise a functional food-processing assemblage. Pit fill 1666 with 19 artefacts, half of which are fragmentary, illustrates a feature of many Kissonerga pits: artefacts were found in the fill but not in the pit itself - in this case pit 1659. The complete tools also comprise food-processing equipment. Pit fill 1660 and pit 2078 each contained an adze and they constitute the only evidence for the storage of wood-working tools in Period 2 pits.
Period 2/3A
This transitional period is represented only by unusable fragments (a quern, mortar and basin) in pit 1554, a chisel and flaked tool in pit 1358 and by pit fill 1147 with a total of 12 artefacts and 10 miscellaneous broken stones. The artefacts from pit fill 1147 are consistent with food-processing usage - 3 rubbing stones, 2 hammerstone/grinders, 2 cupped stones, a pounder, cup and small perforated stone - and only a rubber and hammerstone are unusable fragments.
Period 3A
A considerable increase in the number of pits and a different artefact repertoire in them is evidenced in Period 3A, reflecting an increase in wood-working activities and in objects for use with ceramic or other vessels. Twenty pits and 4 pit fills yielded a total of 123 artefacts. Ten of the pit finds and one from a pit fill occur as single tools. Pits with a sizeable number of artefacts include pit 1426 (17 artefacts) which together with its fill 1464 (26 artefacts) contained 8 and 10 pot lids and 2 and 1 jar stoppers respectively. A piece of red pigment and red stains on 7 artefacts, including a palette, stress this ceramic connection. The other finds are consistent with pigment crushing and food processing. The deposit in pit 1542 (17 artefacts) has a varied repertoire without the special character of pit 1426, containing an axe fragment, an adze, 3 pestles, 2 pounders, a grinder fragment, 3 rubbing stone fragments, 5 vessel fragments and a jar stopper. The increase in wood-working tools in this period is not reflected in pit storage habits, though axes occurred as the single tool in 4 pits and there was a lone chisel in pit 1517.
Period 3A/3B
Three pits contained only 4 artefacts, none being wood-working tools - a bowl fragment and pigment pebble in pit 997, a hammerstone in pit 1494 and a rubbing stone/hammerstone in pit 1589.
Period 3B
In this period there are 5 pits within buildings, some dug into the floors: pit 171 (B2), pit 313 (B4), pits 1202, 1204, 1205 (B994). Only 3 of the 6 tools found in them are complete, though 2 more are usable fragments. Material from Ceremonial Area pits 1015 (25 artefacts) and 1225 (12 artefacts) has already been published (LAP II.2) but is included in Table 19.3. A further 6 pits contained 9 artefacts. Only 2 of these pits, both belonging to the Ceremonial Area, contained unbroken tools - a rubbing stone in pit 1201 and a jar stopper in pit 1375. The deposition of broken tools in the other pits contrasts with the complete finds from the pits in buildings where a relatively small piece from a quern in pit 1205 is the only fragment.
Period 3/4
Three pits contained 5 artefacts including the complete basin KM 2735 set into its own ‘pit’. Chisel KM 2097 in pit 1012 is a fine sharp example and a cupped stone and rubbing stone are also complete, suggesting this is not a waste pit.
Period 3B/4
A total of 12 artefacts came from pit fill 297 and pit 1497. Two complete Type 5 pestles from pit fill 297 are important evidence for a distinctive and prestigious Kissonerga tool (Fig. 91.4). Six of the 10 finds from pit 1497 are fragments (2 rubbers, 2 cupped stones, a pestle and pounder) - all associated with food processing, as are a complete rubbing stone, cupped stone, hammerstone and pestle.
Period 4
There are 8 pits within buildings: pit (posthole?) 6 and pit 11 (B 1), pit 876 (Pithos House), pit 889 (B 493), pit 471 (B 706), pits 1231 and 1241 (B 834), pit 1460 (B 1165), with a total of 23 artefacts. All these artefacts are complete except for a quern in pit 11, a hammerstone/grinder in pit 471 and a chisel in pit 1241. Pit 889 is exceptional with 10 specialised tools suggesting an artisan’s store (4 axes, 2 adzes, a chisel, pestle, polisher and pounder).
Of the other 32 pits totalling 70 finds and 16 pit fills with 25 artefacts, the most noteworthy is pit 1072 with its cache of 18 axes and a flaked tool (Pl. 33.1). In the other pits 1-3 tools only are the norm, with pit 18 containing most artefacts (2 axe-shaped grinders, 2 rubbing stones, a flaked tool, hammerstone, bowl and cup), all pointing to food-processing uses. Other pits contained only fragmentary material, some of which could have been reworked into usable form, while other fragments are irredeemably useless. Of all the Period 4 pits, 24 contained only one artefact, 9 contained 2, 4 contained 3 and one contained 4 artefacts or artefact fragments. Several pits (e.g. pits 847, 885) contained only fragmentary artefacts.
Adzes, pestles and cupped stones are the most common complete single finds. Though such personal belongings relate mainly to food-processing activities, axes, adzes and chisels show a wider ownership of wood-working tools. Pounding tools found with vessels (e.g. a bowl and pestle in pit fill 989, a cupped stone and pounder/grinder in pit 20) may represent an individual production kit.
A hammerstone/grinder from pit 916 is the only Period 5 evidence.
As the total number of Period 3A ground stone finds is 349, the quantity found in pits (35.2%) is significant, especially since Period 4, with 755 registered artefacts, has only 120 (15.9%) from pit contexts. The number of Period 3B artefacts from pits (52 = 23.5%) is of note in that pits with the majority of finds (pits 1015 and 1225) belong to the Ceremonial Area while the other pits have only one or two implements, highlighting two different storage practices.
§ 19.2.2 Stone artefacts from graves and grave fills (For graves and tombs, see § 4 and 16)
A total of 63 artefacts were recovered from 22 graves and their fills from Periods 3A-4 (Table 19.4). The largest number of artefacts (36) are recorded from Period 4 as the majority of graves date to that period, followed by Period 3A (13 artefacts). Querns were used as
Table 19.4. Registered stone artefacts from funerary facilities fills by period
PeriodFunerary facility/fillArtefact
3A?1510 (upper fill, Gr. 535)pestle KM 2015
pecking stone KM 2016
rubber KM 2043
571quern KM 3070 (capstone)
querns KM 3071, 3078
1618 (fill, Gr. 572)bowl KM 3419
574cupped stone KM 3396
rubber KM 3468
rubbing stone/pestle KM 3480
miscellaneous KM 3574
1626 (fill above capstone,cupped stone KM 3513
Gr. 575)
1650 (fill below capstone,pounder KM 3550
Gr. 575)
3B503pounder? KM 490
bowl KM 477.01
563axe-shaped grinder KM 2665
hammerstone KM 2684
adze KM 2729
568rubbing stone KM 2899
hammerstone/grinder KM 2900
2085 (pit, Gr. 568)pigments KM 2901, 2902
2093 (fill, Gr. 568)hammerstone/grinder KM 2744
axe KM 2746
rubbing stone KM 2792
pigment KM 2868
3/4548axe KM 1770
4505cupped stone KM 553.02
chisel KM 553.03
grinding block KM 553.05
bowl KM 553.09,
pot lid KM 595.02
507adze KM 765 (in haft KM 847)
165 (pit, part of Gr. 507)rubber KM 676
309 (fill, Gr. 511)cupped stone KM 725
515bowl KM 910
423 (upper fill, T. 515)pestle KM 796
rubbing stone/pounders KM 797-8
pounder KM 833, pestle KM 834
621 (pit fill 654+Gr. 517)rubber KM 874
780 (fill, T. 523)pounder KM 996
526grinder (pebble) KM 1308.02
884 (fill, T. 526)bowl KM 1181
cupped stone KM 1156
1038 (fill, T. 541)cup KM 2494
hammerstone KM 1746
542quern KM 1726 (capstone)
rubbers KM 1853, 1871
axe-shaped grinder KM 1910
558pounder KM 2446
bowl KM 2447
1318 (fill, T. 558)cupped stone KM 2203
1355 (fill, T. 558)hammerstone/grinder KM 2190
hammerstone KM 2191
pot lid KM 2439
2095 (lower fill, T. 558)miscellaneous KM 2742
561cupped stone KM 2321
2033 (pit, Gr. 562)cupped stone KM 2568
4?341 (upper fill, Gr. 512)rubbers KM 709, 710
Total63
capstones, as in Gr. 571 and 542 (Pl. 34.3), placed in an inverted position. Special food preparation may have taken place during the funerary proceedings, as complete or almost complete cupped stones, hammerstones, pounders and pestles suggest. High social standing of the deceased is indicated by the deposition of prestige objects (bowl KM 477.01 in Gr. 503, hafted adze KM 765 in Gr. 507). Pestle KM 2015, though from upper grave fill, is of fine workmanship and an excellent tool which stands out from other grave fill finds. Artefacts found in T. 505 in the Mortuary Building B 375 are also of sufficient high quality to rank as grave goods, as is cupped stone KM 725 from the fill of Gr. 511. Three pieces of red pigment and a hammerstone/grinder with red staining from the fills of Gr. 568 may point to funerary rites involving preparation and application of colour, as may other tools with similar staining from Gr. 574, 507 and 542 (see Table 19.7).
Only one of the 2 axes (KM 2746, Gr. 568) is in usable condition. Several broken tools occurred in grave fills and are not considered grave goods. Of the 63 artefacts, 43 are complete or still usable, with only slight damage, and 18 are so fragmentary as to be waste material (e.g. bowl rim KM 553.9, bowl handle KM 910, cup fragment KM 2494). Of the bowls, only prestige KM 477.01 is in good condition, though damaged, whereas only 2 rubbers are useless fragments. Of the complete or nearly complete rubbers, 4 are so long they could have served as capstones if required. Intentional breakage of objects is unlikely as only a single fragment from any given object was recorded (e.g. half a cupped stone, KM 3396, half a bowl, KM 3419).
Tool types appearing in graves and grave fills are repetitive, but no pattern emerges of the regular deposit of one artefact type with another. Hammering, pounding and rubbing implements are most common, blade tools rare.
§ 19.2.3 Stone artefacts from buildings (For buildings, see § 3 and 15)
Apart from the finds from pits associated with buildings, occupation fill (‘A’ contexts) included a significant number of in situ artefacts relating to the activities within the buildings or elsewhere of its inhabitants or administrators. Evidence from building contexts is restricted to Periods 3A-4. Other finds come from floor make-up, entrance blocking, stone settings, walls, hearths (‘S’ contexts), and the remainder from general collapse and fill (‘S*’ contexts).