Running head: A Call for International Mindedness
A Call for International Mindedness in our Schools:
Egyptian-American’s Youth Identity between Enculturation & Acculturation
Nora El-Bilawi
George Mason University
EDUC 853: World’s Perspectives
Dr. Rebecca Fox
December, 2008
“If you wake up at a different time, in a different place, could you wake up as a different person?”Chuck Palahniuk
Introduction
Overview of purpose
The search for one’s identity formation in order to find who we are, can be a challenging quest especially in a younger age (Merten & Schwartz, 1967); being culturally, physically, and ethnically different, can further deepen this difficulty.
The purpose of initiating this paper is the call for further qualitative studies to explore Egyptian-American youths’ perceptions of identity formation, ethnic identity, self-esteem, and world perspectives. This information will be important for both Egyptian-American youth and for teachers and teacher educators. It is important for Egyptian-American youth to learn about their self development, their ethnic identity formation, and their self-esteem as an initial stage before they reach the awareness stage of the existence of the other. Moreover, learning about the Middle-Eastern, particularly Egyptian-American youth’s, cultural perspectives will enable teachers and teacher educators to understand the complexity and the different dimensions of this ethnic group’s identity formation and mental stratum. Consequently, an integration of global understanding, international-mindedness, and enrichment of global citizenship concepts will be inevitable in our education: teacher preparation programs and school curriculum. It is expected that the perceptions of this particular population will depend upon how they perceive their culture, their level of acculturation, and how they perceive their level of acceptance by Egyptian and non-Egyptian peers.
The ultimate goal is to integrate the knowledge about immigrant Middle Eastern, particularly Egyptians- and their ethnic identity and self-esteem- as a “way of knowing” and to be an ingredient of our educational programs and course-readings; for example, in teacher education and teacher preparation programs, in educational psychology programs, in world perspective courses and/or in educational anthropology course readings.
This issue of minority identity formation has been associated with the dilemma between enculturation (individual development of own cultural competence) versus acculturation (developing a new cultural competence after already acquiring one) (Pearce, 2007). Thus, the integration of a minority group with the majority group has always been an ongoing issue raised with the increase of global mobility and immigration. According to Sampatkumar (2007), people moved around the world in voluntary immigration or as refugees coming to the new land and carrying their traditions and ethnic ideologies that is different than new land’s majority inhabitants. This transition causes the continuous “friction between communities.”
Identity Formation
One of the major developmental procedures an individual go through when living away from the “homeland” is his or her identity formation especially if his ethnic identity is not accepted among the other major ethnicities in a society. The search for personal identity was examined by theorist Erik Erickson who focused a great deal on the different developmental stages an individual goes through developing their identity (Kinney, 1993). Identity diffusion could play a negative role in shaping youth’s identity as they develop an unclear sense of their identity (Robinson, 2000). Pearce (1996) assures that a strong and well established self-identity and self-esteem shape a “complex-self” that can endure cultural shock and cultural assimilation.
Identity formation, as above mentioned, is designed with complex components of integrated images of self-esteem and ethnic identity. These unique components can be influenced by the experience he or she goes through, negative or positive, throughout the experience of identity formation. These components go through a process of an evaluative, judgmental, or affective customization of a person’s self-concept of identity within the social context (Owens, 1994).
Rational
Learning about the fact that any group of youth, who belongs to a particular ethnic identity, may encounter difficulties in shaping their identity and self-esteem -especially if this process is challenged by narrow-mindedness, stereotyping, and misrepresentation from the majority group- necessitates call for an integration of international-mindedness in our teacher preparation programmes, our schools premises, and educational curricula in order to touch our youth and up-coming generations’ lives.
Cultural diversity is becoming everyday the norm for schools worldwide, and can be considered a school’s richest, most accessible resource rather than a tool for cultural marginalization and diffusion. To facilitate best use of this resource, and optimise student achievement, teachers must be aware of cultural differences beyond the immediately visible surface aspects of the so-called 4-Fs - fashion, festivals, flags and food. They need to be sensitive to the less visible aspects of culture, such as teaching and learning philosophies, communication styles, beliefs and values. Acculturation can also play a great role where schools try to assimilate culturally diverse students and make sure that they are able to integrate (Pearce, 2007). The optimal situation is for each student to develop and value his/her own cultural identity while being enriched by contact with the cultures of others.
With the ongoing trend for globalisation, and the increasing need for international understanding and the need for global respect of ethnic identities, teacher education is now seen as essential by governments and educators. Pearce (2007), views education and schools as “a society’s way of transmitting to its young the necessary knowledge” from this society’s traditions, history, and way of life. Therefore, if teachers and school curriculum promote international-mindedness, youth from different ethnic group will find the transitional process from enculturation to acculturation much easier and dignifies their self-esteem. It is proposed that curricula should include peace studies and conflict resolution, interdependence and intercultural communication, human rights and social responsibility, world issues and problem-solving skills, with an overall aim of developing students who are not only internationally-minded but internationally-hearted. If we accept that teachers are key factors in educational effectiveness then it follows that they need the specialised knowledge, skills and characteristics to nurture this in students. It is time to initiate a systematic approach to the preparation of teachers in key elements of internationalism, both by integration of this content into existing teacher training and through the development of new tailored programmes.
As cultural identity problems soar because of the rapid increase in globalization and normalization around the world accompanied with the rapid decrease of ethnic groups’ mutual understanding, the call for a world perspective and international mindedness becomes necessary. The following is a drawn integration between the idea of Egyptian-American youth’s ethnic identity and self-esteem and the need for international-mindedness in our schools:
First, a group of youths who are culturally and ethnically different need help to attain a firm sense of their ethnic self before they can integrate an inclusive and general sense of self. It is important for this group to move from a singular sense of self to a mature identity of integration and inclusion (Spencer, 1990). It is also important for younger age generation to learn that when they are unable to extend themselves and allow for inclusion of others (races, cultures, ideologies, groups), they are in danger of suffering from “self absorption” and “self locking” (Erikson, 1963, p. 130). In order to prevent self-locking of a certain ethnic group there must be a mutual respect. International-mindedness will allow for this understanding to occur because it will facilitate ,through teachers in schools, a cultural dialogue among different students when interacting in their classrooms.
Second, Middle Eastern youth’s identity confusion, particularly the Egyptians’, reflect the struggle of this minority group’s inner identities of their eastern (homeland origins) and the majority (outer) identity of the Western (inhabited land) (Nasser & MacMillan, 2003). Few researchers have focused on such topic on such population; for example, Marshall and Read (2003) examined identity formation among Arab-Americans and focused on the relationship among ethnic and religious identities of Arab-Americans to determine if a strong ethnic and religious identity undermined their self-esteem-since their religion (Islam) is always stereotyped, undermined, and associated with terrorism.
Third, linking both above mentioned ideas of Egyptian-American youth’s ethnic identity with this view of schools’ role, I may say that a cultural friction can sustain if schools disregarded cultural diversity and tried to replace a group of youth’s ethnic identity with the schools culture.
Literature Review
The following are the literary frameworks that I will base my future research studies on. The plan is to study Egyptian-American youth’s perspective on ethnic identity and self-esteem, and the importance of this knowledge to initiate a call for international-mindedness integration in our teacher preparation and development programs. This featured literature review will outline my theoretical and conceptual framework for potential papers.
International-mindedness
International-mindedness, according to Skelton (2007), is “a part of the continuum that represents the development of self.” Skelton further links international-mindedness to the idea of self, identity formation, and existence of the other. He explains that the concept of self develops form early childhood, as it starts with egocentricity, until a point of differentiation between self and other (2007, p. 380). An individual needs to develop a clear depiction of his self before recognizing the others’ and this process is the initial goal to develop international-mindedness. Heyword (2002), emphasizes on the importance of the development of “self” as a step towards “bicultural identity;” hence, cultural identities may emerge and generate international-mindedness.
Ethnic groups have different identification to the concept of culture and self. Skelton explains that there is a major difference between the Western and the Eastern conception of self. “Self” in the East is more collective and interdependent; whereas, it is more individualistic and independent in the east (Skelton, 2007). However, individuals form their “self identities,” within their cultures, in different scales- either selectively or holistically. As a result, single cultures “do not remain static;” the beliefs that constitute the culture and self identity become “individually and collectively reinterpreted” according to the social context (Skelton, 2007). Therefore, international-mindedness is needed among individuals and their cultural beliefs because, due to this complexity of cultural interchangeability, diversity interaction may cause the opposite of tolerance.
In order to reach international-mindedness, Skelton suggests five solutions: First, to educate our teachers how to shape cognitive skills, interpersonal sensitivity, and cultural sophistication in our children’s minds (Goeudevert, 2002). Second, develop deep and challenging curricula that are related to international-mindedness holistic conception. Third, create learning outcomes and targets integrated in our schools’ standards of learning. Fourth, provide practical application of encountering the “other.” Finally, integrate those four ideas within the wider culture of school.
Hofstede’s organizational culture model
According to Elias (2007), this model combines cultural studies together with international education studies. Hofstede (1980, 1999) defines the functional level of culture as “the software of mind” that controls one’s feeling and behavior. Hofstede defines culture as the symbolic actions and interactions that distinguish one culture or one ethnic group from the other.
Hofstede’s model views culture and self formation through four major dimensions of mental software (Elias, 2007). The first dimension is power and hierarchical distance; that is cultural value of power and regarding persons in high power positions. Second, is the individualistic versus collectivist cultures; the degree of bond and independency among people. Third, is the masculinity culture-good salaries and promotion- versus femininity culture-good relations and pleasant environment in workplace. Fourth, is the uncertainty avoidance; that is the amount of tolerance to ambiguous situation an individual encounter in a culture (1999: 46). Understanding those cultural dimensions accrue to the knowledge we need in integrating international-mindedness in our teacher educational programs.
International education
According to Hayden’s analogy (2007), the term international education is “open to interpretation;” in other words, we can define this term according to the context of discussion. In this paper, international education focuses on the idea of teacher preparation programs and caliber development; this term and area of focus is holistically used for both international and national schools. Merryfield (1995) conceptualizes international education by analyzing its primary features: teachers’ global knowledge, cross-cultural experience, global content in teacher preparation programs, ability of facing controversy, and interdisciplinary curricular (Levy, 2007).
Global education develops the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are the basis for decision making and participation in a world characterized by cultural pluralism, interconnectedness, and international economic competition. Growing out of such fields as international relations and area/international studies, world history, earth science, and cultural/ethnic studies, the field of global education recognizes that students must understand the complexity of globalization and develop skills in cross-cultural interaction if they are to become effective citizens in a pluralistic and interdependent world. International education provides knowledge, skills, and experiences that come from in-depth study, work, and collaboration in education in other countries and with international students and scholars in American institutions.
An international education methodology differs from traditional educational approaches in a sense that; first, global educators focus as much on cultural universals, those things all humans have in common, as they do on cultural differences. Cross-cultural understanding, open-mindedness, anticipation of complexity, resistance to stereotyping or derision of cultural difference, and perspectives consciousness--recognition, knowledge, and appreciation of other peoples' points of view--are essential in the development of a global perspective (Case, 1993; Hanvey, 1975; Kniep, 1986). Second, Study of local-global connections leads to recognition that each of us makes choices that affect other people around the world, and others make choices that affect us. Because of this interconnectedness, global education includes knowledge and skills in decision making, participation, and long-term involvement in the local community and in the larger world beyond our borders. Students learn to find and process information from multiple perspectives (Alger & Harf, 1986).
International education can be said to include schools that are international by name and schools that are international by nature (and, of course, some that are both). Hayden & Thompson (1998, p. 285), highlight `teachers as exemplars of international-mindedness’ as one of the core features of international education, `whether or not that be in an institution called an international school’. Within the broader context of education, international schools represent one element of internationalism alongside the multiculturalism and multilingualism that is typical within many national schools, and the diversity within and amongst different country’s education systems. In a world dominated by supranational production and trading forces, international cultural icons and common environmental problems on the one hand, and intensified and often painful expressions of local identity and regional singularity on the other’ (Steiner, 1996, p. xiv), the international teacher, aiming to develop internationally-minded students, should be aware of internationalism in this broader context. As an educator, a teacher has a unique opportunity to extend students’ knowledge and understanding beyond the immediate and the familiar, and to nurture a disposition for compassion and action globally.