How to Organize Tasks in Lessons and Lessons in Unit
U.S. Constitution as an Example
Martin Kozloff
Unit
| Tasks | Tasks | Tasks | Tasks |
|____|__|_|__|____|__|_|____|_|_|__|______|____|__|_____|___|_|____|
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5
Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3 Lesson 4
1. Every task is a sequence of simple declarative statements arranged to teach something new
(acquisition), to generalize knowledge to new examples, to build fluency, or to ensure retention of
facts, lists, concepts, rules, or routines. For instance, here’s Task 2, Lesson 3.
Task 2.
“Boys and girls. Listen up.” [Gain attention and focus]
“Here’s a list of facts [written on the board or in an electronic document] on the Constitution. Get
ready.” [Frame the instruction]
“Written in Philadelphia, in the summer of 1787. Finished September 17, 1787.Ratified by the states,
June 21, 1788 . First ten amendments added December 15, 1791. The first ten amendments are called
the Bill of Rights.” [Model]
“Read those facts with me.” [Lead]
“Now you read those facts….. Great! Again, but this time by heart. See how many you can do.”
[test/terminal performance. The objective might be four facts. Later repetition will result in more
remembered.]
2. The subject matter does not matter. The design is always:
a Simple declarative statements for teaching facts, lists, concepts, rules, and routines organized into
b. Tasks organized into
c. Lessons arranged into
d. Units on, for example,
(1) Math: X and Y axis; what a data point is; slope and intercept; calculate the quick way with a
ruler (“When X goes across from 4 to 8, Y goes up from 10 to 14. Delta Y/Delta X = 4/4 = slope of
1.00”; calculate slope from X/Y data; calculate slope from data on the internet. [Note the
progression from elements (such as concepts) to larger wholes that CONSIST of the elements.]
(2) History: Writing and ratifying the Constitution.
(3) Geology: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
(4) Spanish: new vocabulary, grammar, literary devices, and culture applied to Don Quixote.
(5) Beginning reading: teaching blending (rrruuunnn à run), segmenting (man à mmmaaannn);
letter sound correspondence (“This sound [r] is rrrrr.); integrate into sounding out words.
3. The grade level does not matter.
4. Whether a knowledge system is tightly-coupled or loosely-coupled does not matter.
Tightly-coupled knowledge systems and systematic, explicit, focused instruction
5. The structure (units consisting of lessons; lessons consisting of tasks; tasks consisting of a sequence of
simple declarative statements that communicate facts, lists, concept definitions, rules, or routines, all
ending with an integration of what was taught) is largely the same no matter what you teach and to
whom you teach it. How?
Because humans use the SAME set of logical operations to learn something new (acquisition)…They
use a routine called…
Inductive reasoning.
“Ms. Razorback used a routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 to solve problem M. She did the same thing with problem N, problem P, and problem O. So, I (believe, infer, conclude, figure) that using the routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 is THE way (routine) to solve THIS kind of problem.”
And human beings use the same set of logical operations to APPLY (generalize) knowledge to new examples….They use a routine called…
Deductive reasoning.
“Okay, here’s a NEW problem---Q. It has the same features as problems M, N, O, and P. Therefore, it is the same KIND of problem as problems M, N, O, P that I’ve already worked.
Deductive reasoning (syllogism)
I use the routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 to solve this KIND of problem (premise).
Problem Q IS this kind of problem (fact).
Therefore, I should use the routine with steps 1, 2, 3, 4 to solve problem Q.” (conclusion)
That’s all there is, Ladies and Gentleman. If you don’t believe me---and, after all, why should you?---ask Zig. http://www.zigsite.com/ Or read this, by Engelmann and Carnine. Theory of Instruction. It will only take about a month to do 30 pages. http://www.adihome.org/index.php?option=com_virtuemart&page=shop.browse&category_id=1&Itemid=107
No other theory is needed. Check it out. You’ll be so smart, your hat won’t fit any more. You’ll look like is kid.
http://image57.webshots.com/157/0/91/32/405809132VZgGrI_fs.jpg
Therefore, if you design Units, Lessons in Units, Tasks in Lessons, and declarative statements in Tasks in a way that makes it easy for students to perform the routines of inductive and deductive reasoning, they are going to learn and apply what they learn.
Any way of teaching that does not facilitate inductive and deductive reasoning is by DEFINITION inconsistent with how the learning mechanism does its business.
Of course, you must clearly communicate knowledge of facts, lists, concepts, rules, and routines, with simple declarative statements arranged in a systematic, explicit, focused way (especially with tightly-coupled knowledge systems) that is slightly different for each kind of knowledge.
6. You are STILL teaching ONLY 6 kinds of knowledge (representations of reality) in the form of simple
declarative statements arranged into procedures (routines) for teaching:
a. Facts. “Here’s a fact (frame). Blah blah blah (model). What’s our new fact? (test)”
b. Lists. “The main offices in Roman government were: emperor or dictator, consul, praetor,
curile, aedile, quaestor, tribune, plebian. Listen to the first two…. Say the first
two….[repeat for the whole list]
http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/rep-offices.html
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romangvt.html
c. Sensory concepts.
(1) Model examples. “This is red. This is red. This is red”
(2) Juxtapose examples and nonexamples.
“This red. This is NOT red. This is NOT red. This is red.”
(3) Test all. “Is this red? Is this red?”
d. Higher order concepts.
(1) Model the verbal definition. X is in the genus Y, and it has features 1, 2, 3
(2)Model examples. “This (thing is in the genus Y with obvious features 1, 2, 3).”
(3) Juxtapose examples and nonexamples. “This is X: notice 1, 2, 3. This is X. Notice 1, 2, 3. This is NOT X. Notice, 1 and 2, but no 3. This is NOT X. Notice, 2 and 3, but no 1. This IS X. Notice 1, 2, and 3.”
(4) Test all. “Is this an X?... How do you know?” [Students use verbal definition to justify answer.]
e. Rules. Two ways to teach.
>Deductive: general (rule) à particular (examples).
(1) Tell the rule.
“All democracies become corrupt and destroy themselves.”
(2) Teach students to say the rule.
(3) Give examples and nonexamples to reveal the features consistent with the rule.
Athens, Rome.
(4) Give new examples and nonexamples) and ask students if each one fits the
rule. “How do you know.” (generalization test)
(5) Have students FIND more examples (generalization). Use this method when you want NO
errors and want fast acquisition, as in teaching tool skills. (generalization = deduction froma general to new particulars).
> Inductive: particular (examples) à general (rule)
(1) Give examples and help students compare them to INDUCE (figure out) the connection = the
rule, and to state it properly (“The more X, the more Y.” “Whenever X, then Y.” “If and only if X,
then Y.”
(2) Have students find more examples.
In the inductive method, you have to teach HOW to induce a general idea (concept, rule) from
examples. That is, how to describe, compare, and contrast examples and nonexamples; identify what is common to examples and not IN nonexamples; and then state the general. “The rule is, When X increases, Y decreases.”
So, use the inductive method when figuring out (induction) IS an objective = loosely coupled
systems. Errors are okay—part of the process of making sense.
f. Routines. As with lists,
(1) Model the whole routine. Tell what you are doing (explicit teaching) so students can internalize it.
(2) Then model one or two steps.
(3) Then have students do those steps with you (lead).
(4) Then have students do those steps by themselves (test/check)
(5) Then repeat with more steps until students do the whole routine by themselves.
(6) Then repeat with more examples. Fade out the lead (“Do it with me.”) part.
(7) Show NONexamples and model/explain how these are different from the routine just taught, and so you can’t USE the same routine.
(8) Then give NEW examples (generalization).
More here.
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/sixkindsofkmnowledgeandteachUSE.doc
http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/proceduresforteachingthesixkindsofknowledge.doc
This is the second time I’ve shoved these links in! You gonna click or not, Pilgrim?
7. The main differences between knowledge systems are:
a. WHAT you are talking about—math, science, literature, beginning reading.
b. How many elements ARE IN any new thing to be taught, and therefore how much BACKGROUND
KNOWLEDGE of those elements (PRE-SKILLS) kids need in order to learn the new thing to be
taught.
8. Each task in a lesson will FOCUS on one small chunk of knowledge. In Task 1 you might be teaching
a new concept. In Task 2, you might be teaching a new routine. In Task 3 you might be reviewing
facts. So, each task has a specific instructional function.
a. Teach something new (one of the six forms of knowledge) = acquisition phase.
b. Generalize knowledge to new examples = generalization phase.
c. Teach students to USE their knowledge faster but still accurately = fluency phase.
d. Review and firm up; reteach if needed = retention phase.
e. Add more to what students already know---examples of a concept, examples of problems,
examples of poems, words to sound out, items on a list of causes of war.
e. Integrate elements in larger wholes. Use concepts, rules, facts, and lists to perform an
experiment that tests an hypothesis (rule).
9. Always start planning at the end of the unit. What do you want students to KNOW = DO? So,
WHAT will they do to show it = terminal performance? And HOW will they do it to show competence
= terminal objectives.
Work backwards. What does each preceding task in each preceding lesson have to review and teach
in order to learn the next?
To find out what knowledge students need to do the terminal performance for a unit, do a
knowledge analysis of the terminal performance. What elements are involved. If possible, analyses
even these elements into smaller elements. For example, if the terminal performance is reading a
story, a knowledge analysis tells you that to read a story you have to (1) read paragraphs, which
means that you have to (2) read sentences, which means that you have to (3) read words fast, which
means that you have to be able to (4) read words fast, which means that you have to (5) sound out
words, which means that you have to be able to (6) segment words into separate sounds and (7)
know the sounds that go with the letters, which means that you have to (8) be able to say sounds.
So the knowledge analysis tells you the elements you have to teach, and it tells you the logical order
in which you have to teach them. Use this information to arrange tasks in lessons and lessons in
units.
10. A unit should end with a terminal performance and terminal objectives that cover the whole
unit---review, test new material, integrate elements.
Every lesson should end with a terminal performance and terminal objectives that cover the lesson.
And every task should end with a terminal performance and terminal objectives.
Of course, the terminal performance and objectives for tasks are short and quick.
“This letter makes the sound rrrr.” [model]
“When I touch under the sound, you say the sound with me. rrrr.” [lead]
“Your turn…When I touch under the sound YOU say the sound. Get ready…” rrr. [TEST]
“Yes, rrr.” [verification]
10. Lessons are usually organized like this.
Task 1. Frame the lesson. “Here’s what we’re working on. Here are the objectives. When you’re done,
we’ll….”
You need to know the objectives for the end of the lesson (or unit). These are TERMINAL OBJECTIVES.
You need to know what students will DO at the end, to show whether they’ve achieved the objectives. This is the TERMINAL PERFORMANCE.
Task 2. Review and firm pre-skills.
Task 3. Teach something new that is an element of the terminal objectives. Fact, list, concept, rule, routine.
Task 4. Work on fluency or generalization of earlier-taught material---facts, lists, concepts, rules, routines. Or, add more to existing fact, list, concept, rule, routine, knowledge.
Task 5. Teach another something new.
Task 6. Review Tasks 3 and 5.
Task 7. Integrate earlier and new knowledge into something larger; e.g., kids sound out words, kids read sentences, kids read stories, kids do an experiment, kids write a paper. This is the terminal performance. Did they meet the objectives in terms of: (1) accuracy (% correct, included all elements, raised questions, provided invented examples?); (2) speed?
12.CAUTION! You do NOT make a template of tasks and lessons and fit instruction into these. Instead,
you plan instruction first, and THEN draw lines (for tasks) separating chunks of instruction that have a
clear and focused function (teach something new, review/firm, work on fluency or generalization,
integration of elements into wholes, terminal performance/test). For instance, you say to yourself,
“We’ll learn the definition of a new concept. (a) I gain attention and frame the instruction. (b) I
state the verbal definition (model). (c) Students repeat the definition. (d) I give examples of the
concept. (e) I give contrasting, nonexamples. (f) I present all the examples and nonexamples, and ask
‘Is this X?.... How do you know?’ (terminal performance/test). That will be task 2.”
Task 2 Lesson 3
|______|
a b c d e f
Here’s an example that integrates all of the above elements.
Unit 3. U.S. Constitution
| Tasks | Tasks | Tasks | Tasks |
|____|__|_|__|__|____|__|_|____|_|_|__|______|____|__|_____|___|_|____|
1 2 3 4 etc 1 2 3 4 etc 1 2 3 etc. 1 2 3 4 etc.