Unit 4: The Twentieth-Century Crisis

I.Isms that threatened European stability. The growing strength of several forces presented a threat to the continent.

  1. Nationalism-Came to view the power & prestige of their nation as more important than democratic rights, individual freedoms, or traditional values. 2 places where this prevailed strongly-Germany & Austria.
  1. Friedrich Nietzsche(NEE-cheh)-German philosopher who declared that a leader must be one who followed no rules but his own.
  2. They glorified war and wanted to dominate others by war and military might.
  1. Social Darwinism-Darwin’s theory of evolution applied to all aspects of life by Herbert Spencer, an English philosopher. Those who were better fitted for the struggle for survival would become rich and successful. The poor were those unable to compete. Extreme nationalists took these claims and justified aggression, war, and the persecution of minorities.
  2. Anti-Semitism: Form of racism-the notion that one’s own racial or national group is superior to others. In Germany, the Aryans were the superior race and the Jews inferior. There had been a strong hatred for Jews since the Middle Ages. Many were forced to live in a ghetto-a section of a European town or city where Jews were required to live. Acts of violence were often encouraged by Russians against the Jews.
  3. In 1896, Theodor Herzl(HAIR-tsul) suggested Zionism-a separate homeland for the Jews where they would be safe from persecution; carried out several years later with the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.

As the 20th century began, European society seemed strong and stable. Rapid changes, however, brought uncertainties. Extreme nationalism and racism were creating bitter hostilities among nations and peoples.

  1. Alliance Systems

Remember, European nations had struggled for centuries to maintain a balance of power. The modern power struggle began with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, which drew new boundaries in Europe. The increasing German (Prussian) strength and the policies of the newly united German Empire realigned Europe into 2 hostile camps between France and Germany. The French defeated Germany in the Franco-Prussian War, which resulted in the loss of Alsace-Lorraine in 1870-1871. Russia and Austria were potential enemies because they shared borders and competition for the territory of weaker nations. The alliance system was based on both internal loyalties and fears.

  1. To keep France isolated and deprive it from taking Alsace-Lorraine back, Chancellor (chief minister of state) Otto von Bismarck began to make alliances-a union between nations with a common interest. 1879-Germany & Austria-Hungary made a dual alliance (secret military alliance).
  2. 1882-The dual alliance expanded to include Italy, making the Triple Alliance (later, the Central Powers).
  3. 1894-France seeks an ally due to Germany’s military strength, which was increasing, industries were expanding, and population was growing. They allied with Russia, forming an entente-a friendly alliance (public treaty of friendship).
  4. 1904-Great Britain joined in the Triple Entente (later the Allies), setting aside differences. Germany regarded this as a threat from the east and west. By 1907, Europe was divided.
  1. Militarism-another cause of tension-the policy of glorifying war and promoting the buildup of military power. If one country increased their military, the other followed suit. Remember, Germany wanted to extend power & territory; France wanted to retain Alsace-Lorraine. Militarism was a powerful force in the prewar period. So influential were Germany’s military leaders that a historian described Prussia as not “a country that had an army but an army that had a country.” The belief that quarrels must be settled on the battlefield were widespread.
  2. Slavs Nationalists Movements in Eastern Europe-

Russian related Pan-Slavists wanted Russia to rule over the Slavs of Eastern Europe. Serbia had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878, but the Slavs in Bosnia and Herzegovina had come under Austrian rule. The Serbs wanted to unite with these and create “Greater Serbia.” Their obstacle was Austria, who fears a revolt; the Serbs feared trouble from Austria.

  1. The Triggering of World War I
  1. Assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the throne.

June 28, 1914: A Serbian nationalist (Black Hand; Union of Death), 19-year-old GavriloPrincip shot and killed Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, who were riding in an open car; a car that made a wrong turn in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo. The Serbs hoped this would increase tensions and the occurrence of a Slavic revolution.

  1. Alliance system reacts.

July 23, 1914: Austria sent Serbia demands that if they did not answer, Austria would declare war. The Serbs accepted all but one of the demands; they refused to let Austria investigate the shooting, which displeased Austria. A chain reaction occurs as the Balkans were about to explode: Germanyhad promised help to Austria. Austria was ready to declare war on Serbia, which alarmed Russia.

  1. The Great War begins: July 28, 1914. (5 days after the ultimatum was issued.)
  1. Austria declared war on Serbia.
  2. 2 days later, Russia mobilized for war against Germany & Austria.
  3. Germany wanted to attack first and warned Russia to stop preparing for war. Russia did not and Germany declared war on Russia on August 1st. 2 days later, Germany declared war on France since they were Russia’s ally.
  4. The war escalated as Germany put the Schlieffen Plan into effect. Named for Count Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of the German general staff from 1891-1906, this plan aimed at going around French defenses by sweeping through Belgium to the English Channel, then wheeling to the south and east to overpower the French and crush them against the German fortresses in Lorraine. Germany asked Belgium first, but was refused, resulting in an invasion on August 3rd. This involved Great Britain since the British had pledged to guarantee Belgium’s neutrality (this had happened after Belgium had gained its independence in 1830). On August 4th, the British joined its allies.
  5. 2 days later, Austria declared war on Russia.

The war drew in the major nations in a matter of days (July 28th-August 6th, 1914; less than 6 weeks after the shooting at Sarajevo. Extreme nationalism and militarism supported each other and made it difficult for diplomacy to work. All the great powers of Europe were at war; still more countries would become involved until it truly was a world war.

  1. A World at War: The opposing sides reflected the alliance system. Triple Entente-France, Britain, & Russia (later, the Allies); Triple Alliance-Germany and Austria-Hungary (later, the Central Powers). Italy, the other member of the Triple Alliance, objected to Austria’s aggression and eventually joined the Allies. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers. In 1917, the United States joined the Allies.
  1. War Action-The German army invaded Belgium in August, 1914, confident of victory.
  1. Western Front-The German army invaded Belgium in August, 1914, confident of victory. Everything depended on speed. The bulk of the German army would defeat France while a small army would hold off Russia in the East until this victory. Germany trains would then rush the troops to the eastern front. The plan failed, though. The Russians moved faster and invaded East Prussia in late August. The remaining ones on the western front were stalled by counterattacks by British troops who united with French troops defending Verdun against a major German offensive.
  2. New techniques and weapons.
  1. Trench warfare-(no man’s land) Hundreds of miles of trenches were dug across France marking the western front. Between lines laid barricades of barbed wire, mud, torn earth, & shattered trees. Attacking soldiers had to get out of trenches & climb over. Trench warfare was first used as a method of defense by the Confederates in the Civil War.
  2. New Weaspons.
  1. machine guns
  2. long-range guns
  3. poison gas
  4. tanks (Germans introduced these in 1916.)
  5. airplanes (2 of the best known wartime fliers (aces)-the German Baron von Richthofen (the Red Baron) and the American Eddie Rickenbacker.
  6. Submarines (introduced by the Germans)
  1. Eastern Front-While the Germans were attacking France in 1914, the Russians won some early victories in eastern Germany. However, they were badly beaten at Tannenberg by the armies of the German commander, Field Marshall Paul von Hindenburg. In the spring of 1915, another Austro-German offensive forced a retreat. By late 1916, the Russian war effort was near collapse. The Russian army was poorly trained, inadequately equipped, and incompetently led. (Over 2 million casualties) Problems within Russia resulted in a revolution which resulted in the czar’s overthrow. In March, 1918, Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk giving up land, resources, and population, and leaving the war and losing to Germany.
  2. Several areas of involvement.
  1. Italy-1915, Italy signed an agreement with France and Britain, joining the Allies. Fighting broke out on the Austrian-Italian border. In the fall of 1917, combined German/Austrian forces broke through the Italian lines at Caporetta, causing retreat.
  2. Asia & the Pacific-Japan took over German spheres of influence on China’s ShantungPeninsula.
  3. The Ottoman Empire (Turkey)-along the coast. Allies were stopped at Gallipoli in their attempt to take the Turkish Dardanelles in 1915.
  4. Africa-French & British troops took over German colonies at Togoland, Kamerun, and southwest Africa.
  5. Juttland-only major naval battle between BritainGermany, 1916, with the British forcing the Germans back into German waters.
  1. The United States enters the War.

President Woodrow Wilson advocated a policy of neutrality, which was hard to maintain for a number of reasons.

  1. Propaganda caused sympathy. News & information was designed to persuade people to adopt a particular point of view.
  2. Economic Reasons-
  1. Both BritainGermany interfered with shipping by neutral nations. Britain seized cargo to keep war supplies from reaching Germany. The Germans turned their submarine fleet into weapons. (Their subs were called U-boats: short for Untersee, German word for undersea.) They attacked neutral merchant ships carrying food and supplies to Britain. Many were killed. In May, 1915, the Lusitania (a British ship) was sunk, killing 1,200 including over 100 Americans.
  2. Loans-Individual American banks and businesses had loaned 1.5 billion dollars to the Allies, who used much of it to buy U.S. supplies.
  1. Zimmerman Telegram. 1917, German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman tried to make an alliance with Mexico, promising that a German victory would return Texas and other parts of the American Southwest to Mexico. Britain broke the code to this secret telegram and the offer was made public. Although Mexico remained neutral, America was now very angry.
  2. U.S. declares war in April, 1917. Wilson’s aim was to “make the world safe for democracy.” By early summer, troops of the American Expeditionary Force, under the command of General John J. Pershing, began to arrive in France. They joined with the Allies, led by the French general, Marshal Ferdinand Foch (Fohsh). In June, 1918, the German offensive was stopped at Chateau-Thierry (shah-TOH-TYEH-ree) on the MarneRiver.
  1. The Central Powers collapse. Germany had problems: shortages of food, medicine, oil, and ammunition. The Allies counterattacked. German generals knew the war was lost & asked the government to ask for an armistice-a halt to the fighting. In October & November, 1918, AustriaTurkey surrendered and rebellions in Germany forced the Kaiser (William II) to give up the throne. A newly established government signed the armistice on November 11, 1918.
  2. The “War to End all Wars” ends with 9 million killed; 21 million wounded or disabled; and 13 million dead of disease and starvation.

IV.Peace creates problems-The peace settlement did not create the atmosphere that was desired.

  1. Wilson’s 14 Points: Even before the end of the war, President Wilson offered a peace plan in a speech to Congress (1-8-18). Wilson outlined his points that he thought would bring world peace.
  1. Self-determination: The right of national groups to determine their own political status. This meant that Austrian lands inhabited by Italians would belong to Italy. The South Slavs and the Czechs in Austria-Hungary could form their own states, as well as the Poles.
  2. “Peace without victory”-Wilson urged a fair treatment for Germany, believing that harsh treatment would cause them to seek revenge. A just settlement would cause those defeated to work with the Allies for a new & better world. He envisioned free trade and freedom of seas for all nations.
  3. Disarmament-Wilson wanted to eliminate militarism, hold open negotiations, and disarm the nations so that no country would fear its neighbors or seek to invade them.
  4. Fair treatment of colonial peoples-Wilson called for a “free, open-minded, and absolutely impartial adjustment of all colonial claims.” He hoped that the imperialist nations would eventually apply the principle of self-determination to their colonies, considering the interests of the people as well as their own concerns.
  5. League of Nations-To preserve peace, Wilson urged the formation of an international organization, hoping it would help both large and small nations settle their quarrels and discourage aggressors from taking up arms.
  6. Wilson’s idealism clashed with reality. The war had great losses and bitterness. Hatred was not gone between the nations.
  1. The Versailles Treaty

There were actually 5 separate treaties (one with each of the defeated states: Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, & the Ottoman Empire), but the one with Germany (June, 1919) was the most important, with France gaining and Germany paying the consequences.

  1. Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France.
  2. Germany lost land to Poland.
  3. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was repealed, giving back land to Russia.
  4. German territory on both sides of the Rhine was demilitarized (free of troops).
  5. The German army was reduced to only 100,000 men, with no artillery, tanks, or war planes in order to prevent Germany from being a future threat. The German army could consist of only volunteers, and the navy was limited to a small fleet with no submarines.
  6. Germany lost its overseas territories in Africa, Asia, & the Pacific Ocean. Its colonies were given to France and Britain.
  7. Germany and its allies received blame for the war, therefore, Germany was required to pay reparations to other nations, as compensation for property destroyed in the war. The price-$33 billion. Germany felt this was unfair.
  1. New nations formed from GermanyAustria-Hungary: The Czechs and Slovaks became Czechoslovakia; the Croatians, Slovenes, & Serbs joined with Serbia to form Yugoslavia; AustriaHungary became separate nations.
  2. The League of Nations formed with more than 60 nations joining. But the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty and never became a member. Many Americans adopted isolationism-the feeling that their country should avoid involvement in foreign affairs. Some thought that league membership would involve the U.S. in more wars.

In the aftermath of the war and the peace settlements, there were widespread political and territorial changes. Idealistic plans for peace were advanced, but bitter feelings and resentment in many nations worked against a lasting, permanent peace.

“Russia in Upheaval”

I.Czarist Rule is overthrown: At the end of the 19th century, Russia remained one of the most autocratic states in the world. Think back to the 1800s: There was dissent in Russia because of Alexander II’s reforms which went against the people’s normal way of life. Alexander repressed this by ending the reforms, thus, Russia lagged behind the rest of western Europe. Even further back in Russia’s history, at the turn of the 18th century, Peter the Great tried to westernize Russia, but did not meet with favor from those who favored traditional ways.

The Bolshevik Revolution grew out of the long-standing conflict between the goals of the czars-the desire to modernize Russia & the desire to maintain their autocratic rule.

  1. Czarist Unpopularity Continues.

Czar Nicholas II became czar in 1894 at 26. He strongly believed in autocratic rule, thus, Russia stayed behind while western Europe experienced industrialization, urbanization, and the spread of democratic government. Russia remained weak & underdeveloped.

  1. There were attempts to industrialize and modernize Russia.
  1. Sergei Witte (VEET-tyeh), a minister to the czar, realized change was needed and urged a program of industrialization. Foreign experts were hired. Taxes werer increased; railroads developed; etc.
  2. The people reacted negatively. Why? Agriculture had been the mainstay of the Russian economy & Russian life. Workers became discontent with the low standard of living that factory work provided.
  3. Social Discontent-other reasons for dissatisfaction.
  1. Russo-Japanese War: This had humiliated the Russians and was followed by rebellions of workers, peasants, sailors, & other groups.
  2. Imperial Duma was established. The czar agreed to this first parliament and managed to increase participation in the government. There were now more reforms:
  1. land was given to more peasants.
  2. Greater freedom was given to the most successful farmers-kulaks (fists).

Yet, troops were used to suppress rebellion.