Introduction to semantics and translation
byKatharine Barnwell
본교재는고신대학교‘성경번역학’ 강의를위해저자의허락을얻어제작된축약본입니다
GBT/SIL 조광주
1980 Summer Institute of Linguistics, Inc.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This course is based on the theory and principles of Bible translation presented by Beekman and Callow, inTranslating the Word of God and Nida and Taber, in The Theory and Practice of Translation.
It also incorporates insights from Beekman and Callow, The Semantic Structure of Written
Communication (pre-publication edition).
These and other sources are gratefully acknowledged at the relevant places in the text.
Many of the examples are drawn from experience of Bible translation projects in Nigeria. Staff and
students at the British SIL over the past few years, as well as other colleagues, have also contributed
examples in various languages, and these, too, are acknowledged in the text, as far as possible, with much
appreciation to all who have shared their ideas and experience.
I am especially grateful to John Callow and Pam Bender-Samuel for their helpful comments and suggestionson the text, and to Liz Crozier, Yvonne Stofberg and David Spratt for helping to proofread the finalmanuscript.
Katharine G.L. Barnwell
Horsleys Green, 1980
NOTES AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following abbreviations are used to refer to Bible versions:
GNB - Good News Bible – quotations are from the 1976 British usage edition
JB - Jerusalem Bible
JBP - J.B. Phillips' version
KJV - King James Version (Authorized version)
NEB - New English Bible
NIV - New International Version
RSV - Revised Standard Version
원저자에 대하여
Katy Barnwell has served with SIL since 1963 in Nigeria and Africa Area, and from 1989 to 1999 in the International Translation Department at Dallas. In Nigeria she was seconded to the Nigeria Bible Translation Trust and was extensively involved in training Nigerian translators and consultants. She received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from the School of African and Oriental Studies and University College, London, in 1969.
차 례
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
NOTES AND ABBREVIATIONS
원저자에대하여
차 례
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
CHAPTER 2: MEANING AND FORM
CHAPTER 3: MEANING IN CONTEXT AND ‘CONCORDANCE’
CHAPTER 5: COMPONENTS OF MEANING
CHAPTER 6: OTHER LEXICAL RELATIONSHIPS
CHAPTER 9: TRANSFERRING LEXICAL MEANING FROM ONE LANGUAGE TO ANOTHER
CHAPTER 10: RHETORICAL QUESTIONS
CHAPTER 11: FIGURES OF SPEECH: METAPHOR AND SIMILE
CHAPTER 12: OTHER FIGURES OF SPEECH
CHAPTER 14: THE CONCEPT
CHAPTER 24: BIBLE TRANSLATION PROCEDURES
CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS LANGUAGE?
1.1 THE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE
What is the purpose of language? What do we use language for?
- to give information
- to obtain information e.g., by asking questions
- to stimulate actions e.g., by giving commands
or by making suggestions,
or just by saying something
which arouses a response
- to express feelings or emotions e.g., by exclamations
or by poetry
- to establish a relationship with other people, or to
indicate and attitude
e.g., greetings, such as ‘hello’
In summary, the function of language is to communicate MEANING of various kinds. Words
are powerful tools for giving information and for stimulating reactions in other people
1.2 THE FORM OF LANGUAGE
There are, of course, other ways of communicating meaning:
e.g., traffic lights
international traffic signs
factory whistle (indicating the time to start or stop work)
gestures or mime
the dancing of bees which indicates where honey can be found
How is language different from these other systems of communication?
i. The use of VOCAL SOUNDS, i.e., sounds made with the mouth and other speech organs.
(Or of WRITING, which is another way of representing verbal sounds).
ii. The COMPLEXITY of the system—Language involves more than isolated signals, each with its
own fixed meaning. It involves a complex, interacting combination of signals which can be used in a wide
variety of situations. This makes possible the expression of fine distinctions of meaning, and also discussionand explanation.
iii. Language is CREATIVE—Language is a system which allows for the expression of new ideas; it
is possible to say something which has never been said before, and to be understood. The system itself is
constantly developing and expanding. Thus, language may be described as an ‘open-ended’ system.
1.3 THE RELATION BETWEEN THE MEANING AND THE FORM OF LANGUAGE
Language therefore, is communication which involves:
A. MEANING B. VOCAL SOUNDS
a message which is being the sounds by which that message is
communicatedcommunicated
But sounds alone do not communicate. A language which is unknown to the hearer sounds to him like
a meaningless jumble of noise. The hearer cannot understand the meaning of those sounds unless he is
also familiar with the complex system by which, in that language, the sounds are linked with particular
meanings. Each language has its own distinctive systems for linking sounds with meanings. These
include:
a. Vocabulary — Each language has a large number of words, each of which conveys a meaning which
has been (unconsciously) agreed and accepted by speakers of that language. The meaning of each
word will, of course, vary according to the context in which it is used and the other words with which
it occurs. This inventory of words is sometimes referred to as the LEXICON or LEXICAL
INVENTORY of the language.
b. Grammar — Each language also has an accepted set of patterns for making meaningful utterances;
signals such as a certain word order, a particular intonation, or the presence of a “grammatical” word
(such as a preposition or conjunction) all convey particular meanings.
c. Phonology — Each language has a fixed number of phonetic sounds (e.g., a certain number of
vowels and a certain number of consonants). These sounds group together in regular and consistent
patterns to form the phonological units of that language. It is these phonological units which actually
give substance to (or “realise”) the lexicon and grammar of a language.
Thus, the relationship between the meaning and the form of language can, in a simplified way,
be diagrammed as follows:
Meaning LEXICONSounds
GRAMMAR
"FORM"
Thus, language can be viewed, from one perspective, as a complex of interrelated ‘levels’:
lexicon, grammar, and phonology.
1.4 MEANING IS UNIVERSAL, FORM IS DIFFERENT FOR EACH LANGUAGE
With very limited exceptions, it is possible to express the same meaning in any language. But the
particular form by which that meaning is expressed will be different in different languages.
Thus the diagram on the previous page can be summarised:
MEANING expressed by FORM
(universal) (the unique patterns of a specific language)
CHAPTER 2: MEANING AND FORM
2.1 EXPLORING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MEANING AND FORM IN A LANGUAGE
2.1.1 ONE MEANING MAY BE EXPRESSED BY SEVERAL DIFFERENT FORMS
Even within one langua ge, it may be possible to express one meaning by several different forms; that is, by using different grammatical patterns and/or different words.
e.g., (a) “Is this place taken?”
“Is there anyone sitting here?”
“May I sit here?”
2.1.2 ONE FORM MAY EXPRESS SEVERAL DIFFERENT MEANINGS
The meaning of a given form in a language is no t always the same. It may vary according to the context inwhich it occurs, depending either on the situation in which the utterance is spoken, or on the linguistic
context, i.e., the other linguistic items with which it co-occurs.
e.g., (a) He put the things on the table.
a mathematical table
a bus timetable
to table a motion
(b)my car — i.e., the car which belongs to me (possession)
my brother — i.e., the brother to whom I am related (kinship)
my foot — i.e., the foot which is part of my body (part-whole)
my singing — i.e., (what/how) I sing (actor-activity)
my book — i.e., the book which belongs to me (possession)
or the book which I wrote (author creator)
or the book I am talking about now, as in “my book for review:
(item reference)
my village — i.e., the village I come from
my train — i.e., the train I plan to travel on
my route — i.e., the route I intend to follow
my word! — i.e., exclamation of surprise
Thus, WITHIN ONE LANGUAGE
ONE MEANING MAY BE EXPRESSED BY SEVERAL DIFFERENT FORMS
ONE FORM MAY EXPRESS SEVERAL DIFFERENT MEANINGS
2.4 IMPLICATIONS FOR TRANSLATION
The starting point of translation is a message. This message is expressed in a specific language, which is
called the SOURCE LANGUAGE (SL).
In translating, we are aiming to re-express that message in another language. The language into which the
translation is being made is called the RECEPTOR LANGUAGE (RL).
We have already seen that the FORM of each language is unique. Therefore translation will involve some
change of form. This does not matter provided that the MEANING of the message is retained unchanged.
Translation, therefore, involves TWO stages:
Stage 1: Analysing the meaning of the source message. In the Biblical context, this is referred to as
EXEGESIS.
Stage 2: Re-expressing the meaning as exactly as possible in the natural form in the receptor
language. This step is sometimes referred to as RESTRUCTURING.
Thus the translation process can be diagrammed as follows:
SOURCE MESSAGE TRANSLATED MESSAGE
FORM FORM
in the in the
SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEPTOR LANGUAGE
Discovering the Restructuring
meaning (exegesis) the meaning
MEANING
STAGE 1 STAGE 2
2.4.1 MEANING HAS PRIORITY OVER FORM
Sometimes translators try to transfer a message without changing the form. The result is often either a
translation which is impossible or difficult to understand, or one which even expresses wrong meaning.
For example, the expression “sons of the bridechamber” in Mark 2:19 (quoted below in section 2.5,
example (1)), was translated word-for-word into one language, and was understood by the hearers to mean“the children which the bride had borne before her marriage,” a token of her fertility—an interpretationwhich accorded with custom in that area.
In another language, the RSV rendering of Luke 2:5 “Mary was with child” was translated word-for-word,“Mary kept all these things in her heart,” until it was realised that in Kilba ‘to keep in one’s heart’ is anidiom meaning ‘to bear a grudge’. So the verse had to be re-translated, “Mary kept on thinking about thesethings.”
Other examples:
Gird up the loins of your mind KJV 1 Peter 1:13
Put a belt round the waist of your thoughts (early Igbo version)
Put on bowels of mercies KJV Colossians 3:12
(compare J.B. Phillips’ version: Be merciful in action)
In these instances, keeping the FORM of the source message resulted in wrong or obscure meaning being
transferred. If the message is to be communicated correctly, MEANING MUST HAVE PRIORITY OVERFORM.
2.4.2 FORM IS IMPORTANT TOO
This does not mean that form is unimportant. Within each language, it is the form which indicates the
meaning. It is, therefore, of the utmost importance to study the form of both the source language message andthe receptor language with the greatest attention to detail.
The smallest differences of form may signal important shades of meaning. If the translation is to be accurateand faithful, the translator must be aware of these distinctions and must seek to re-express those shades ofmeaning exactly in the translation, using the appropriate forms to do this in the receptor language.
For this reason, the exegesis step of translation is extremely important. A major part of the work of the
Bible translator is careful research into the exact meaning of the source message. It is strongly desirable thatthe translator should have a good knowledge of Biblical languages so that he can refer back to the originalform of the message.
2.4.3 QUALITIES OF A GOOD TRANSLATION
The three most important qualities of a good translation are:
1. ACCURACY -- correct exegesis of the source message, and transfer of the
meaning of that message as exactly as possible in the receptor language.
2. CLARITY -- there may be several different ways of expressing an idea—choose the way
which communicates most clearly; the way which ordinary people will understand.
3. NATURALNESS -- it is important to use the natural form of the receptor language, if the translation
is to be effective and acceptable. A translation should not sound foreign.
The translator is constantly struggling to achieve the ideal in all these three areas—no easy task. When it
seems impossible to reconcile all three, then ACCURACY must have priority.
2.6 KINDS OF TRANSLATION
A “word-for-word” translation, which follows closely the FORM of the source message, is called a
LITERAL translation. Examples of completely literal translations would be the interlinear translations of
Mark 2:19–20 and of Genesis 49:10 given in section 2.5 above..
A MODIFIED LITERAL translation follows the form of the source message as closely as possible,
generally making only those adjustments which are necessary to avoid forms which would be
ungrammatical in the receptor language. This kind of translation is illustrated by the King James Version
and the Revised Standard Version in the examples in section 2.5. Notice that a modified literal translation
usually:
- follows the word order of the source text as closely as possible
- keeps the same parts of speech wherever possible, translating a noun by a noun, and a verb by a verb
- translates idioms in the source text word-for-word (e.g., KJV, children of the bridechamber in Mark
2:19)
- retains discourse features, such as sentence connections or use of pronouns, exactly as in the source
text.
By contrast, a translation which aims to express the MEANING of the source text in the natural form of thereceptor language is referred to by Beekman and Callow as an IDIOMATIC translation. An idiomatictranslation gives priority to the communication of the meaning of the source text.
Nida and Taber use the term DYNAMIC to describe a translation which focuses on meaning. They
emphasize that a translation should not only communicate exactly the information given in the original
message, but should also arouse the same emotional response in the hearers. The Good News Bible is an
example of an idiomatic or dynamic translation.
Thus there is a continuum ranging from extreme literal translation, through modified literal to idiomatic ordynamic translation. The various English versions could be placed along this continuum at different points.The criterion is how closely does the version follow the form of the original text. A modified literaltranslation reproduces the grammatical or lexical form of the source text as closely as possible. The priorityof an idiomatic translation is to communicate the message of the source text as clearly and naturally aspossible; in order to achieve this purpose it is sometimes necessary to use a different grammatical or lexicalform in the receptor language.
There is another continuum along which versions could be measured. This is the scale of accuracy—how
accurately does the translation express the meaning of the source text?
These two dimensions can be charted as follows:.
CLOSENESS TO THE FORM OF THE SOURCE TEXT
LITERAL MODIFIED IDIOMATIC/
LITERAL DYNAMIC
MAXIMUM
ACCURACY
CLOSENESS
TO THE
MEANING
OF THE
SOURCE TEXT
MIMIMUM
ACCURACY
DISCUSSION Consider the various versions of the Bible with which you are familiar.
Where on the above chart do you feel that each version would fit?
When contemplating translation into a new language, it is necessary to consider several questions before
deciding what kind of a translation should be made:
For whom is the translation intended? Is it for “ordinary,” less educated people, or is it for the
educated élite?
For what purpose will the translation be used?
Are there already well-trained preachers and teachers in the area who will be able to explain theScriptures?
EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 2
(1) From your own experience of learning a foreign language, or from observation, give two examples of
instances where different forms are used in different languages to express equivalent meaning.
e.g., German: Er macht den Kurs..
lit., He makes the course.
English: He is taking the course.
Korean:He is stepping the course. (편집자추가)
(5) Below is the Greek text of Mark 2:5 with a literal, word-for-word translation in English. In any
language of your choice, give both a modified literal and an idiomatic translation of this text. You may
refer to any versions of the Bible, but please make your own translation; do not just quote another version.
If you make your translation into a language other than English, then please also provide a word-for-wordback translation in English.
When you have completed the translation, write a brief note identifying three specific points where your
idiomatic translation is more natural or clearer than your modified literal translation.
Mark 2.5
[막 2:5]
having seen the Jesusthe faith of-them, he-says
to-the paralyti, “Child, are-forgiven of-you the sins.”
CHAPTER 3: MEANING IN CONTEXT AND ‘CONCORDANCE’
Chapters 3 to 9 cover the second module of this course. The focus of this part of the course is LEXICAL
MEANING, mainly the meanings of words.
In this study we shall be concerned primarily with vocabulary-words; that is, words which have some kind
of referential meaning, which refer to things or events or attributes. Words of this kind are sometimes
called CONTENT words; they should be distinguished from relational words, e.g., prepositions, definite
and indefinite articles or conjunctions, whose function is to signal relationships.
3.1 ONE WORD—MANY SENSES
In any language, there are many words which have a number of different senses.
e.g., English “dressed”
1. He dressed himself quickly as it was cold.
2. The nurse dressed the wound as best she could.
3. He dressed the window in preparation for the January sales.
4. She dressed the chicken in readiness for the meal.
5. She dressed her favourite doll in a pink kimono.
6. The soldiers dressed ranks at the officer’s command.
7. She dressed the salad as usual.
8. They dressed the ship with flags in honor of the President’s visit.
Example from John Callow
3.2 THE CONTEXT OF A WORD INDICATES WHICH SENSE APPLIES
For any particular occurrence of a word, how can one know which sense of that word is intended? It
is the CONTEXT which provides the clue.
Sometimes the clue is in the grammatical context.
In sorting out the different senses of a word, the first step is usually to sort out the different grammatical
usages, and to study these separately. This does not mean that there is no meaning relationship between, forexample, the same word when it is used as a noun and as a verb, but the grammatical differentiation