Cantata Michael Mays
The New Harvard Dictionary of Music defines “cantata” as “a composite vocal genre of the Baroque era, consisting of a succession of recitatives, ariosos, and set-pieces (e.g. arias, duets, and choruses.” They may be “either secular or sacred in subject matter and function,” and are typically not staged. They range in size from works for solo and a few instruments to large choir and full orchestra.
The cantata originated in Italy in the 17th century, a vocal counterpart to the instrumental sonata. It was a “distinctly secular work” for solo and continuo and meant for amateurs as well as professionals. Early on the genre tended to be monodic, but in the 1630s it became difficult for any but opera singers and church musicians to perform. Large cantatas, or serenatas, called for several singers and as much as a small orchestra. Eventually the period generated the da capo aria, and early 18th-century cantatas involved “two or three da capo arias, each of which is prepared by a recitative.”
The Italian cantata was the model of subsequent like forms, including the Lutheran cantata. As the motet matured it took on “cantata”-like qualities, such as solo singers and instruments. It was the parent form the of the chorale, a “distilled” version of the contrapuntal themes used in the larger work. J.S. Bach is the most significant figure in the field of German cantatas, having written at least 200 cantatas himself (presumably more).
The cantata grew in size and scope, usually becoming quite long and requiring more in the way of performing forces; essentially, a “miniature oratorio,” and post-18th century works tended to be “secular and frequently involving classical or allegorical motifs.” The form eventually was replaced by the oratorio, due in large part to the absence of a “social or religious framework that would stimulate constant production and encourage creative innovation.”
Expression Marks Michael Mays
Expression marks are “symbols and words…to guide the performance of a work in matters other than pitches and rhythms.” They can be used to alter “dynamics, tempo, and articulation (including bowing and tonguing).” This article proposes that “[the] use of the term ‘expression’ in this context is somewhat misleading, since whatever the nature of musical expression, it does not result exclusively or perhaps even principally from those aspects of music specified by ‘expression’ marks.” I must confess that I am not entirely clear on what this statement means, since it is doubtful that anyone would think that expression markings per se could contain the emotional content of musical expression. They are simply guides to articulating the composers desired effect. In that sense, I think this appellation is perfectly appropriate.
Oratorio Michael Mays
Although defined as “an extended musical drama with a text based on religious subject matter,” the oratorio is a concert-style performance not necessarily meant to be staged with “scenery, costume, or action.” It originated from the construction of church buildings of the same name, edifices annexed to the cathedral and designed specifically for “community experiences…distinct from the regular liturgy… They were acoustically optimal not only for lectures but for music as well.”
The Baroque oratorio was developed from the 16th-century motet, containing “elements of dramatic narration and dialogue.” Giovanni Francesco Amerio’s Teatro armonica spirituale di madrigali is demonstrative of the use of oratorio in the Roman culture, and was typically written in Italian (the “oratorio volgare”). Towards the end of the 17th century they tended to become more secular in content and operatic in length, and female singers were used. “Most of the well-known opera composers of the period also composed oratorios,” which was differentiated from opera merely by “its subject matter, its division in to two parts rather than three acts, and the absence of staged action.”
The oratorio picked up native qualities as it spread throughout Europe. Some changes in the form arose: the sepolcri “did involve scenery, costume, and action.” The Italian oratorio basically did well wherever opera did well, but in Germany its roots in the “Lutheran historia” ensured the survival of the form in the church. As the German oratorio became influenced by the Italian, extra-biblical texts began appearing, as did basso continuo (giving rise to the passion, a work of “free alternation of dramatic material that employs text drawn verbatim from Scripture with contemplative material that emplyos newly created poetry”). Eventually it produced Haydn’s The Creation and The Seasons.
England contributed little to the art form until Handel’s work in the 18th century. His work could be said to have started the philosophy of “nationalization” of oratorio subjects, wherein English patriotism provides and undercurrent theme to the stated circumstances of the work. French oratorio was used to depict Catholic mysticism; the Germans demonstrated “romantic interest in the legendary, the supernatural, and the apocalyptic,” on Bible stories, or revisualizations of old forms (Brahms’ Requiem, for example).
There is little evidence of a strong body of oratorio composition in the twentieth century, primarily because “the 20th century lacks in general the institutions and the strong traditions that would stimulate the regular production of large choral works based on religious texts, with or without a plot.” Still, the usefulness of this form for purposes of propaganda have been capitalized by many composers, and the “strong choral traditions of England” left fertile soil for such impressive modern oratorios as Waltan’s Belshazzar’s Feast and Britten’s War Requiem.