Appendix 9

Potential Impacts of Extreme Weather on Services : A Summary

(Source: Lancashire County Council Environment Directorate )

1.Corporate functions

1.1 Finance

The impacts of climate change have significant financial implications for local authorities, including:

  • direct and indirect costs associated with extreme events
  • potential changes to the costs and availability of insurance
  • potential changes to the value of climate-vulnerable assets
  • costs associated with adapting to a changing climate
1.2 Human resources

The primary human resource issues for local authorities arising from projected climate changes are likely to be impacts on working conditions due to increases in average summer temperatures and the frequency of extreme heat events (heat waves). These may affect working efficiency and in extreme cases have health and safety implications. Measures may be needed to:

  • Maintain council premises at appropriate internal temperatures to ensure safe, comfortable and efficient working conditions
  • To ensure the health and safety of outside workers
  • Other issues that may arise could include:
  • Staffing implications from changing demand for services, including the capacity to respond to weather-related emergencies
  • Possible changes to patterns of absenteeism from differing sickness, care responsibilities, or disruption of infrastructure

Potential human resource responses to a changing climate could include staff awareness raising, education and training on issues such as:

  • Minimising heat build up through changes to use of windows and ventilation
  • Turning off heat-generating equipment when not in use
  • Careful use of water
  • Preparedness for weather-related emergencies
  • For outside workers
  • Training and protection to avoid increased UV exposure
  • Changes to clothing and uniforms to cope with higher temperatures
  • Ensure the availability of water to prevent dehydration and heat stress
  • Changes to working hours or schedules to avoid periods of most intense heat

Authorities able to demonstrate that they are well-adapted to a changing climate may enhance their reputation as good employers improving recruitment and retention rates

One of the key aspects of being well-adapted to a changing climate is building the institutional capacity to respond to climate changes. Human resources considerations have a vital role in building institutional capacity.

1.3 Building management

In developing a climate change adaptation strategy and action plan, climate impacts on premises should be considered.

Three aspects of building management are considered here:

  • the management of existing facilities;
  • the retrofitting of existing premises with measures to improve climate resilience; and
  • the specification, design and construction of new premises
  • These 3 approaches have different cost implications and are likely to be relevant over different time periods.

1.4 Facilities management

Facilities management offers opportunities for adaptation via operational changes, modified maintenance regimes and modest physical changes. Typically, assuming that there are no extreme vulnerabilities to current risks (as identified by way of an LCLIP, for instance), these may be the most cost-effective means of minimising climate risks in the short term, say over the next 5 to 10 years. More detailed guidance on facilities management.

1.5 Retrofitting

The retrofitting of more substantial climate adaptation measures to existing premises is most cost-effective as an integral part of major maintenance or refurbishment programmes. However, there may be instances where risks are such that ad hoc retrofits need to be considered. In either case the aim should be that all major retrofits have design lifetimes appropriate to the investment involved, taking into account site specific issues and projected climate changes over the period for your locality. Typically this is likely to be in the range of 10 to 30 years. More detailed guidance on retrofitting.

1.6 New premises

It is important that the specification, design, and construction of all new premises take account of the projected impacts of climate change over their planned lifetimes in the context of their geographical location and site-specific conditions. Typically this will require consideration of climate threats and opportunities for periods in excess of 30 years. Given that the uncertainties of climate change projections increase with time, one of the important design criteria is likely to be flexibility to cope with a range of future climate risks by, for instance, options for incremental upgrading of adaptation measures. More detailed guidance on new premises.

2. Economy

2.1 Enterprise support

In 2007, 28% of businesses were disrupted by extreme weather (CMI, 2008). This is likely to increase as our climate continues to change. Enterprise Support staff can help SMEs think through the implications for theirbusiness and how to respond.

UKCIP has developed a web-based resource for the business support community to assist them in providing advice to SMEs on climate change impacts and adaptation. It suggests how business advisors can:-

  • Make the business case for adaptation to an SME
  • Decide where to target their support
  • Raise awareness
  • Use tools like the Adaptation Wizard to deliver advice
2.2 Regeneration

Regeneration schemes should be designed to be resilient to projected climate changes over their design lifetimes. For new developments and major refurbishments this will typically be in excess of 30 years. Robust design will require consideration of appropriate climate change scenarios and an understanding of local and site-specific vulnerabilities established, for instance, by undertaking an LCLIP or similar vulnerability study.

3. Education and learning

3.1 New education buildings

It is important that the specification, design, and construction of new educational buildings take account of the projected impacts of climate change over their planned lifetimes. Typically this will require consideration of climate threats and opportunities for periods in excess of 30 years. Given that the uncertainties of climate change projections increase with time, one of the important design criteria is likely to be flexibility to cope with a range of future climate risks.

The specific climate risks that need to be considered will be related to:

  • The geographical location of your authority
  • The location of the site; and
  • site-specific conditions

Some of the key issues for school premises are:

  • The need to provide a safe, healthy environment for learning
  • The need to minimise climate-related disruptions to children's education
  • The need for school buildings to be sustainable and easy to maintain over their design lifetime

In addition to the general considerations for the design of climate-resilient premises, the most important specific factor to be considered for new school buildings is the vulnerability of children to excessive temperature. This is particularly the case for younger children and therefore is especially relevant to early-years and primary premises, but should also be considered in the provision of secondary schools and colleges.

Currently, there are no statutorily defined maximum temperatures for schools. The aim should be to ensure that all areas of the school are capable of being maintained below appropriate temperature thresholds for the comfort and safety of pupils and students.

4. Emergency planning

Local Resilience Forums (LRFs) already plan for severe weather, but climate change projections suggest that in future LRFs may need the capacity to respond to long term changes in the climate.

The Emergency Planning Society, UKCIP and the Nottingham Declaration Partnership have prepared a briefing note Emergency Planning: Adapting to climate change. It presents some initial ideas on how emergency planning may need to respond. It draws on discussions at a practitioner workshop held in June 2009. The note discusses:-

  • Work that is currently being undertaken for the UK Adapting to Climate Change Programme that could in future provide valuable information to help emergency planners to better understand the growing risks from climate change.
  • Sources of information on projected climate change and its consequences.
  • A checklist of possible increased risks from severe weather that LRFs and other partners might increasingly need to consider.
  • Ideas on what action LRFs could take now to prepare for increasingly severe weather.

5. Environment

5.1 Biodiversity

Studies have identified a number of key direct impacts of climate change upon biodiversity including:

  • Changes in the timings of seasonal events, leading to loss of synchrony between species and the availability of food, and other resources upon which they depend.
  • Shifts in suitable climate conditions for individual species leading to change in abundance and range.
  • Changes in the habitats which species occupy.
  • Changes to the composition of plant and animal communities.
  • Changes to habitats and ecosystems, such as altered water regimes, increased rates of decomposition in bogs and higher growth rates in forests.

There is already evidence that species and ecosystems are being impacted by climate change, for instance:

  • There has been a general trend towards spring and summer events, such as flowering and migration, taking place earlier in the year.
  • Species are increasing and decreasing their abundance at sites in ways correlated with climate change.
  • Many species are showing evidence of changes in their range. Those which undergo annual migration are responding particularly rapidly.
  • Recent studies of the silver spotted skipper butterfly (Hesperia comma) have revealed a change of habitat, so that it now breeds in cooler, taller grasslands.

There are also likely to be indirect impacts on biodiversity arising from responses to climate change in other sectors, such as:

  • Changes in socio-economic drivers, working practices, policies and resource use.
  • Changes to agriculture -- crop types, regional patterns of crop planting, the introduction of carbon management initiatives, biomass and bio-fuel crops could all have important implications for biodiversity
  • Biodiversity in habitats associated with the Water and Wetlands EBS sector will be affected by water resource issues and catchments management. Increased water abstraction and fragmentation by artificial structures such as impoundments, flood control and hydro-electric schemes are potential threats to biodiversity. The creation of wetland habitats for water storage and flood control and the introduction of integrated catchments management may offer opportunities
  • Threats to biodiversity within the Woodland and Forestry sector may result from increasing emphasis on carbon sequestration or production of biomass for renewable energy generation.
  • Within Towns and Cities, negative impacts on biodiversity may result from the intensification of land use as a consequence of policies for increasing energy efficiency. Strategic planning for sustainable development may offer opportunities to incorporate biodiversity objectives; biodiversity can be included within new designs for building and open spaces and wetland habitats may be created as part of flood management and sustainable urban drainage systems.
  • Within the Coasts and Seas sector, fisheries policy has a major impact on biodiversity. Policy in the coastal zone could have positive or negative effects, depending on whether habitats are created by managed realignment and the nature of coastal defences. Increased tourism development and renewable energy schemes also have the potential for negative impacts in some circumstances.
  • Natural England has published a review of four specific Character Areas which suggests that significant changes are needed to the way England's landscapes are managed to allow them to adapt to climate change.
5.2 Landscape character

Natural England's Character Area Climate Change study aimed to identify the local responses required to safeguard the natural environment and its enjoyment. It looked at four specific Character Areas in England that represented contrasting habitats and landscapes that are likely to be affected by climate change. The Character Areas were: Cumbria High Fells; Shropshire Hills; Dorset Downs and Camborne Chase; and The Broads. The study concluded that for all four areas:-

  • There will be changes in the plant and animal species that can survive in particular habitats;
  • New species will move into the area as climatic conditions change, and some established species may be lost as their `climate space disappears;
  • The timing of seasonal events such as flowering, breeding and migration will change
  • There will be greater risk of soil erosion and flooding during intensive rainfall events
  • Extreme weather events (drought, intense storms, and floods) are likely to occur more frequently, and habitats may not be able to recover from repeated disturbance.
  • It recommended key practical steps to help build resilience including:-
  • Improve the condition of existing habitats
  • Restore lost and degraded habitats
  • Extend existing habitats and create new areas for wildlife
  • Increase the variety of microclimates in existing habitats and create a wide range of microclimates in new habitats
  • Adopt sensitive farming methods - for example, by leaving buffer strips around fields rather than planting right up to the edge.
5.3 Environmental health

Climate change is predicted to impact on public health. The main impacts identified by the Department of Health are summarised on the Health Improvement and Promotion page (link?)

The Chartered Institute of Environmental Health has identified potential health impacts that are especially relevant to environmental health professionals:-

  • Increase in food poisoning due to increased survival of micro-organisms in warmer ambient conditions, in association with eating outdoors or storage in warmer conditions.
  • Increase in water related diseases due to: warmer temperatures; more frequent heavy rainfall which can increase surface water torpidity and the number of bacteria and pathogens; slower river flow during periods of drought which may increase pathogen concentrations due to less dilution of effluent discharges; and increases in algal blooms.
  • Increase in insects and vector born diseases, especially: midges; house dust mites; cat and dog fleas; stinging, biting and blood sucking insects; nuisance flies with the associated risk of food contamination.

The health impacts of air pollution are likely to be mixed. Overall, warmer temperatures combined with an expected reduction in emissions of particles, oxides of nitrogen and sulphur dioxide are expected to decrease annual mean and winter levels of air pollution. On the other hand, increased summer temperatures, especially heat waves, are likely to be associated with increased air pollution and associated health problems.

The Chartered Institute for Environmental Health (CIEH) suggest that environmental health professionals can take action to:-

  • Input into long-term and emergency planning for floods and storms
  • Co-ordinate health and hygiene advice before and after floods
  • Investigate health risks of contaminated sport and outdoor play areas following flooding
  • Provide advice on preparing for high winds, tailored to gust speeds

Work with water undertakers to ensure that measures are in place to protect water quality in the event of river floods and flash floods during torrential storms

Co-ordinate advice on responding to heat waves, especially for vulnerable groups (elderly, chronically sick, deprived groups including homeless people)

Improve surveillance and reporting of climate related health impacts

CIEH has proposed that further research is needed to examine the implications for food poisoning of climate change.

5.4 Grounds maintenance

Projected climate changes are likely to change seasonal ground conditions with greater risks of flooding and water-logging in winter and drought conditions in summer. These may require:

  • Improved drainage systems to alleviate greater flood risks and to ensure that playing fields and amenity areas are accessible throughout the year
  • Water conservation measures and management to enable specialised areas, such as cricket pitches and grass tennis courts, to be maintained in periods of drought
  • Resilient landscaping and planting schemes capable of tolerating both greater winter rainfall and summer drought conditions (with minimal need for watering)
  • Reducing the extent of impermeable surface to lessen problems with surface water runoff

Changes seasonal patterns of growing affecting the timing of maintenance regimes, including:

  • Mowing regimes - extended thermal growing season may require mowing to be carried out throughout the year, whilst reduced rainfall may require less frequent summer mowing.
  • Timing of activities such as pruning, weeding or leaf clearance may need to be varied
  • Climate changes may affect prevalence of pest and diseases requiring different management responses
  • Some alien species may become more pernicious

Opportunities may include:

  • Warmer winters and fewer frost days may offer opportunities to grow more tender plants, although these may be restricted by high winter rainfall
  • Uses of mulching and ground cover planting to retain soil moisture
  • Use of water harvesting measures to improve the use of scarce water resources

6. Fire and rescue

Fire and Rescue Services (F&RS) already deal with the impacts of severe weather, but climate change projections suggest that in future F&RS may need the capacity to respond to increasingly frequent and severe weather events.

A study for CLG in 2006 into the Effects of Climate Change on Fire and Rescue Services in the UK, concluded that:-

  • Climate change will lead to an increase in the frequency of hot summers and therefore to an increase in the number and severity of grassland and forest fires, requiring significant extra effort from Fire and Rescue Services. These summers are also predicted to be very dry, which may lead to water shortages. Water shortages during the summer will impact on Fire and Rescue Services in the UK in both training and fire fighting.
  • It is also shown that increased winter rainfall and higher sea levels will lead to an increase in the frequency of flooding events during winter. Whilst measures are being taken to address this problem with improved flood defences, new pumping equipment and innovative appliance design, issues such as training, access to water rescue craft and helicopter support may need to be reviewed with this in mind. These events may also create an increased demand for short notice access to urban search and rescue equipment.
  • F&RS buildings, equipment and staff may be vulnerable to the increasingly high temperatures, storms and severe floods that are expected to occur with climate change. As a key service during emergencies, F&RS need to ensure that they can continue to fully perform their functions during severe weather.

7. Health