Renaissance
A rebirth of classical ideas (1330-1530) when Italian cities became the intellectual and artistic centers of Europe
It was the awakening of the human spirit - feelings and thoughts that celebrated nature and the dignity of man with new learning and new styles of art
High culture so only affected a few (popolo grasso) - most people lived in misery (popolo minuto)
Was not religious or scientific but secular, moral, and personal (contrast to the Middle Ages)
Emphasized the individual not the group
Economic growth was the basis for the Renaissance
Northern Italy (centrally located) benefited from the crusades and the spice trade
Renaissance started in Florence and follows the success of the Medici family
Florentine merchants gained control of the papal banking
1397 Giovanni de’Medici founded the Medici Bank
Pazzi Conspiracy (1479)
Pope Sixtus IV wanted rid of the Medici
Guiliano was stabbed but Lorenzo the Magnificent survived
Lorenzo had more than 80 people hanged for the conspiracy
Lorenzo’s son Giovanni became Pope Leo X and his nephew Guilio became Clement VII
Even marriage vows were business arrangements
The popolo (poor class) hated their position and used force to take over the cities
The popolo could not retain power and were later replaced by despots or oligarchies
Political Structires
Florence was ruled by an oligarchy
Northern Italian cities were communes
Despots showed their wealth by patronizing the arts - Medici
Individual had a loyalty to their own city-state
Five city-states dominated the peninsula: Venice, Milan, Florence, the Papal State, and the kingdom of Naples
Cesare Borgia (Machiavelli’s hero and son of Pope Alexander VI) tried to unite the peninsula
Northern Europe was uniting - Italy remained fragmented
Signing and breaking alliances was common
Condottierri (mercenaries) were often used to settle disputes
Savonarola of Florence attacked paganism, vice, undemocratic government of Lorenzo de Medici, and corruption of Pope Alexander VI.
Initially people supported him but later he was burned (1498)
*People did not share his opinions of the commercial elite and the Medici returned to power
Renaissance Thought
Renaissance was characterized by self-conscious awareness that Italians were living in a new era - supported by wealthy patrons like the Medici
One of the founders of this movement was Petrarch
The Renaissance was the light after the gloom of the Dark Ages
The Roman Empire was the peak of human civilization
Artists of the Renaissance had contempt for medieval predecessors
A deep interest in Latin, a revival of the antique lifestyle, and a more secular spirit.
A new individualism appeared -
Virtu - being a person through the showing of human abilities
Individualism stressed:
a) personality
b) uniqueness
c) fullest development of capabilities
d) the quest for glory
Humanism
Medieval scholars applied reason to philosophical and theological questions - scholasticism
Renaissance scholars, poets, and artists developed a different, more secular, way of looking at the world and at man inspired by and imitated the classics scholars like Cicero
New curriculum was studia humanitatis
This study of the classics became known as "new learning" or "humanism"
Cicero considered this important for anyone who considered himself civilized
Humanism emphasized:
a) human beings
b) human achievements
c) human capabilities
Italian humanism became more of an interest to lay people
Italian Humanists
Deeply religious viewed the classics in a new light
Did not question the Christian faith but had an understanding of paganism
Skeptical of the authority of the classics because of distance from the author
Studied classics to understand human nature
Rejected classical ideas that opposed Christianity but sought a harmony between paganism, secularism, and Christianity.
Main tool for humanists was education
Loved the language of the classics
Secularism
Concerned with the material world not the eternal world
Boccaccio Decameron about a worldly society.
Papal interests actually encouraged worldliness
Writers
Petrarch - "Father of the Humanism" passionately read Cicero and St. Augustine, but was critical of the ancient writers
Dante - Divine Comedy - reason can only take people so far, God's grace must be used
Niccolo Machiavelli - The Prince (1513) political treatise with a secular attitude "the end justifies the means"
Baldassare Castiglione - The Book of the Courtier (1518) rules on the correct behavior of man
Lorenzo Valla - applied liguistic and historical analysis to documents. On Pleasure defended pleasure also wrote On the False Donation of Constantine which weakened the pope’s authority.
Boccaccio - The Decameron
Artists
Natural representations of beauty, used nudity (classical paganism)
Religious art was used to teach about the church
Emphasis on classical symbolism - used images from pagan Rome
Eventually saw the development of the portrait as a new means of self-promotion
Sculpture was dominated by works of religious significance (David)
Giotto - painted religious scenes using light and shadows (chiaroscuro), created the illusion of depth
Massaccio
Leonardo da Vinci - Last Supper, Mona Lisa
Raphael - The School of Athens
Michelangelo - The universal man - David, Sistine Chapel
Ghibert
Donatello - first statue cast in bronze since classical times
Botticelli - Birth of Venus
Brunelleschi
NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
Politics and the State
More of a blend of old and new - less classical
Much more religious than in Italy
Studied Greek and Hebrew texts for a greater understanding of Christianity
Students from England, Holland, France, and Germany went to Italy for the ‘new learning’
Northern humanists interpreted Italian ideas in terms of their own traditions.
They were more religious
They stressed the Bible and early Christian themes
They developed an ethical way of life - provided guidance on personal behavior
Classical and Christian cultures should be combined
They had a profound faith in the human intellect
People could be improved through education
Northern (Christian) Humanists
In Germany:
Western and southern Germany were economically advanced
14th century - mystics like Thomas a Kempis (The Imitation of Christ) (1427) believed the human soul could communicate with God
They did not rebel against the Church but wanted a deeper religion
Around 1450 Gutenberg invented printing with movable type
In France
Jacques Lefevre d’Etaples applied humanism to religion
Believed in education
Wrote Gargantua and Pantagruel
Rabelais was secular
In England
John Colet
Thomas More was trained as a lawyer at the Inns of Court
Deeply interested in the classics and greatest English humanist
Entered government under Henry VIII
Wrote Utopia (1516) where all children receive a humanist education.
More believed private property caused vices and civil disorder
Lost his life to maintain his convictions
Edmund Spenser
Christopher Marlowe
Shakespeare
Low Countries
Erasmus (1466-1536) "Prince of the humanists" had a deep appreciation for the classics
Most well-respected man in Europe
Influenced by John Colet in England
Wrote The Education of a Christian Prince and The Praise of Folly (1512)
Two main themes:
Education is the means to reform
‘The philosophy of Christ’ Christianity is an inner feeling
Artists
Jan van Eyck
Hubert van Eyck
Bosch
Brueghal
Dűrer
Holbein the Younger
‘New Monarchs’
A new breed of leaders - ruthless, preferred security to love
Outside of Italy they were actively building states
They used the monarchy to guarantee law and order
The despots of Italy, Henry VII of England, Louis XI of France, Ferdinand of Aragon
All Machiavellian (but could not have read The Prince)
Invested kingship with strong authority and national purpose
Monarchy linked all classes of society within a boundary
Insisted on respect and loyalty
Ruthless oppressed rebellions and opposition
Loved the business of kingship
Tended to rely on the middle-class - new bourgeoisie
FRANCE
Charles VII revived the monarchy
Expelled the English
Increased the influence of the middle class
Strengthened finances through taxes like salt (gabelle) and land (taille)
Created first permanent royal army by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) asserted supremacy over the papacy
Crown could appoint bishops
His son, Louis XI (Valois) was a Renaissance prince
Promoted industry
improved the army
signed international treaties
The Estates General met only once during his reign
1516 Francis I signed the Concordat of Bologna which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction - king could appoint bishops
ENGLAND
Decimated by the Black Death
The Tudors (1485-1603) won War of the Roses
They passed laws against nobles having standing armies
The monarch did not depend on government for money so much more independent
Royal Council (Star Chamber) was the center of authority
The Royal Council handled the king’s business including arranging marriages.
Aristocratic threats were dealt with by the Star Chamber
Star Chamber used Roman Law and methods to enforce the law
accused people were not entitled to see the evidence against them
sessions were in secret
torture was often used
there were no juries
The Tudors promoted peace and order
Henry VII (1485) rebuilt the monarchy
Ruled through unpaid officials
he encouraged trade
built up the merchant fleet
crushed an invasion from Ireland
secured peace with Scotland (his daughter Margaret married the Scottish king)
SPAIN
Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married (1469) and united the regions
They ruled through ‘hermandades’
Restructured the royal council - excluded the rich and powerful
The church was the linchpin of the reform.
Alliance with the Spanish pope Alexander VI Spanish monarchs gained great power and a national church
reconquista (1492) - expulsion of the Jews and Moors from Spain
lasted over 100 years
Conversos- Jews that converted
Moriscos - Christians of Moorish background
Marranos - Christians of Jewish background
inquisition - the ruthless court that decided if conversos were telling the truth
later used against the Protestants
Ferdinand and Isabella expelling all Jews from Spain had major economic consequences
Absolute religious orthodoxy and pure blood were the foundation of Spain
Ferdinand and Isabella’s daughter Joanna married Philip. Their son was Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor.
Charles V - the ‘Universal Monarch’
Germany
Part of the Holy Roman Empire
Local lords recognized the supremacy of the Emperor, who was elected by 7 Electors
1452 Archduke of Austria (Habsburg) was elected Emperor Maximilian I (1493-1519)
He married the heiress of the Duke of Burgundy
Their son, Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella
Their son was Charles V
Politics
The Prince - Machiavelli
For Machiavelli the test was a ‘good’ government was an effective government.
Machiavelli’s work rests on two principles:
i. Permanent social order
ii. reflecting God’s will is impossible
Politics should be considered a science.
Johann Gutenberg changed the course of history with the movable print. Printing made propaganda possible and forced people into groups i.e. church and state or Crown and nobility.
Printing stimulated literacy of lay people.
Women
The status of upper-class women declined
Women generally had less power than in the Middle Ages
Renaissance humanism represented an educational advance for a small minority.
Women had to choose marriage or education
Education brought jealousy and envy
Girls in the upper-class were taught how to dance, paint, and play music - they were decorative
Love and sex also worsened during the Renaissance
Women belonged at home
Educational opportunities were severely limited
Literary and art works had no effect on ordinary women
Women were a sign of wealth.
The Reformation
A Need For Reform
During the Renaissance the pope was not only head of the Catholic Church he was, probably, the most powerful man in the known world. He was able to exert control over peasants and princes by threatening eternal damnation on those who questioned church dogma. However the development of the nation states such as England and France started to undermine the political power of the papacy. As monarchs gained the right to appoint loyal people to ecclesiastic positions and levy taxes on the church, so the pope was forced to come to terms with these New Monarchs.
In Germany and Italy the political organizations were less structured. Both regions were comprised of a polyglot of loosely affiliated states and principalities governed by individuals with a large degree of autonomy. Because of the fractured nature of the countries the pope was forced to listen to and acknowledge the rights of many rather than the power of one.
Despite the fact the northern humanists were critical of the church they were a long way from calling for a separation from the Church. They were, however, very vocal in their opinions concerning the ignorance of the clergy. Unfortunately, as these attacks became more and more vociferous so the Church became more reluctant to accept the necessity for change.
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1378) and Great Schism seriously damaged the integrity of the church
The Italian and Christian humanists denounced the corruption of the Church (Erasmus, Boccaccio)
clerical immorality - neglect of celibacy, drunkenness, gambling
clerical ignorance - lack of education
clerical pluralism - holding several offices, led to absenteeism - not physically residing over benefice
Popes lived in splendor and corruption
Yet at the village level priests were not much better off than peasants
Government officials were often rewarded with clerical positions
Popes were just as corrupt:
Innocent VIII made the papal court the gossip of Europe
Alexander VI publicly acknowledged his mistress and children
Julius II led an army against France (although he was responsible for Michelangelo painting the Sistine Chapel!)
The Church held a large portion of European wealth and many people, especially Italians owed their opulent lifestyle to corrupt Church practices.
In Europe was still deeply religious and many groups i.e. "The Brethern of Common Life" wanted reform
Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis urged Christians to follow a simple life, centrality of the scriptures
The Lateran Council (1512-27), called by Pope Julius II, did recommend changes - but there were many obstacles
North and South
North:
a) Many northern monarchs openly resented having to tax the people and send the money to Rome, especially with all the problems surrounding the Church of Rome. b) The Reformation also fuelled the fires of nationalism, especially in the German States.
c) The printing press facilitated the dissemination of information, especially across northern Europe
d) The upper class of northern Europe saw an opportunity to obtain church land for themselves. King Henry VIII of England used church land to gain the support of the nobles for his reformation policies.