Molly Sween

Foundations of Social Theory

James S. Coleman

Coleman’s why question: Why and how do norms come into existence?

·  “In this book I refuse to take norms as given; in this chapter I ask how norms can emerge and be maintained among a set of rational individuals” (242)

Coleman’s motivational mechanism: Individuals are motivated by self interest and act in such a way that will result in rewards rather than punishment for their behaviors

Key Ideas:

Norm: socially defined actions of appropriate and inappropriate behavior

·  “Norms are devices for controlling actions in the interests of persons other than the actor” (294)

Characteristics of norms:

·  “Property of a social system, not of an actor within it” (241)

·  Specify actions that are correct or incorrect

·  Purposively generated-benefits those who create and follow norms (i.e. beneficiaries of norms) and harms those who do not follow norms (i.e. target actors)

·  Established through social consensus

·  Enforced by sanctions-informally or legally

Focal actions: action for which the norm is directed (246)

Proscriptive norms: discourage focal action (247)

Prescriptive norms: encourage focal action (247)

Sanction: exercising one’s right to control a focal action (248)

Negative sanction: inhibiting focal action (248)

Positive sanction: inducing focal action (248)

How and why do norms emerge?

·  Events have external consequences which impact others (i.e. externalities)

o  Can be (+)àaction benefits others, or (-)àaction is harmful to others

o  “Norms emerge as a result of purposive actions on the part of actors who experience externalities from others, potential beneficiaries of the norm” (287)

·  Individuals engage in exchanges-something to offer one another (254)

·  Assuming that there is an interdependence among parties, norms arise when equal exchange becomes less likely (parties of two or more)

How and why do sanctions emerge?

·  Norms are most effective when there are effective sanctions put in place to enforce them

·  Sanctions based on elements of social structure:

o  Social relationships: When a social relationship exists between two parties, it is easier to sanction the actions of a third party who is disrupting the balance (269)

o  Cost of sanctions: Sanctioning another is costly, especially if one is interested in continuing a relationship with the one who is being sanctioned (286)

o  Social closure: closure of the network in which a relationship exists between those who “experience externalities from another’s actions” (278)

§  “Closure reduces the net costs of applying a sanction, because the consensus that occurs in structures having closure provides the legitimacy (that is, the right) for actors to apply sanctions” (285)

Who enforces the sanctions behind norms?

·  Internal and external sanctions (policing)

·  Internal sanctions learned through socialization-“instillation…of the conscience or superego” (294)

o  Example: Parent/child relationship

§  External sanction: punish or reward their behavior

§  Internal sanction: illustrate your disappointment or happiness in response to an action

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