Nazi Germany
Eight Steps to becoming a Dictator
1Reichstag Fire - 27 Feb 1933
The Reichstag (the German Parliament) burned down. A Dutch Communist named van der Lubbe was caught red-handed with matches and fire-lighting materials. Hitler used it as an excuse to arrest many of his Communist opponents, and as a major platform in his election campaign of March 1933. The fire was so convenient that many people at the time claimed that the Nazis had burned it down, and then just blamed the Communists. Modern historians, however, tend to believe that van der Lubbe did cause the fire, and that Hitler just took advantage of it.2General Election - 5 March 1933
Hitler held a general election, appealing to the German people to give him a clear mandate. Only 44% of the people voted Nazi, which did not give him a majority in the Reichstag, so Hitler arrested the 81 Communist deputies (which did give him a majority).Goering became Speaker of the Reichstag.
3Enabling Act - 23 March 1933
The Reichstag voted to give Hitler the power to make his own laws. Nazi storm-troopers stopped opposition deputies going in, and beat up anyone who dared to speak against it.The Enabling Act made Hitler the dictator of Germany, with power to do anything he liked - legally.
4Local government - 26 April 1933
The Nazis took over local government and the police. The Nazis started to replace anti-Nazi teachers and University professors. Hitler set up the Gestapo (the secret police) and encouraged Germans to report opponents and 'grumblers'. Tens of thousands of Jews, Communists, Protestants, Jehovah's Witnesses, gypsies, homosexuals, alcoholics and prostitutes were arrested and sent to concentration camps for 'crimes' as small as writing anti-Nazi graffiti, possessing a banned book, or saying that business was bad.5Trade Unions banned- 2 May 1933
The Trade Unions offices were closed, their money confiscated, and their leaders put in prison. In their place, Hitler put the German Labour Front which reduced workers' pay and took away the right to strike.6Political Parties banned - 14 July 1933
The Law against the Formation of Parties declared the Nazi Party the only political party in Germany. All other parties were banned, and their leaders were put in prison.7 Night of the Long Knives - 30 June 1934
The SA were the thugs who Hitler had used to help him come to power. They had defended his meetings, and attacked opponents. By 1934 there were more than a million of them.Historians have often wondered why Hitler turned on the SA. But Hitler was in power in 1934, and there was no opposition left - the SA were an embarrassment, not an advantage. Also, Rohm, the leader of the SA, was talking about a Socialist revolution and about taking over the army. On the night of 30 June 1934 - codeword 'Hummingbird - Hitler ordered the SS to kill more than 400 SA men.
Source A Night of the Long Knives
Read the information about the Night of the Long Knives (
and use the information to interpret Source A
8Führer - 19 August 1934
When Hindenburg died, Hitler took over the office of President and leader of the army (the soldiers had to swear to die for Adolf Hitler personally). Hitler called himself 'Fuhrer'.Road to War
What were Hitler’s aims?
In 1935, the historian HAL Fisher wrote that ‘a country which is determined to have a war can always have it.’
Hitler was determined to destroy the League of Nations, and it is doubtful if anything could have saved it.
Hitler had three aims:1.To abolish the Treaty of Versailles
The Germans hated it, especially:- Tiny armed forces,
- The Saar was under League of Nations control,
- The Rhineland was demilitarised,
- Anschluss (union) with Austria was forbidden,
- Germans were forced to live in Czechoslovakia (the Sudetenland) and Poland,
- Danzig was under League of Nations control.
2.To expand German territory
The German population was growing. Hitler said that the German nation needed more Lebensraum (‘living space’). He was determined to get Lebensraum by conquering land in Eastern Europe.
This was connected with his belief that the Aryan race was genetically superior and destined to rule over others. Hitler believed he had the right to invade Eastern Europe and make the Slav peoples (such as the Poles and the Russians) Germany's slaves.
3.To defeat Communism
The Nazis were Fascists: the exact opposite of the Communists who ruled Russia.
Hitler blamed the Communists for Germany's defeat in World War One, and he feared that the Communists were trying to take over Germany.
He was determined to destroy Communism, and this meant a war with Russia.
Source D
This cartoon by the British cartoonist David Low appeared in the Evening Standard newspaper on 9 September 1938.
Hitler on the left, in front of a Nazi flag, waving a sheet of paper marked 'The Idea. All Germans everywhere are mine'. Behind him stands a long line of ghostly figures, each carrying a placard marked 'Polish Germans - Crisis', 'Hungarian Germans - Crisis' etc with 'British Germans' and 'U. S. A. Germans' further down the line
Questions
1. Study Source D - it suggests a further motivation of Hitler's foreign policy (pan-Germanism). What does it suggest on the surface that Hitler was trying to do?
2. Understanding the meaning of the cartoon, did Low really believe that pan-Germanism was one of Hitler's motives?
Eight Steps to War
1.SAAR PLEBISCITE
In 1935, the historian HAL Fisher wrote that ‘a country which is determined to have a war can always have it.’
The Treaty of Versailles had put the Saar under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. In 1935 the inhabitants of the Saar voted to return to Germany. The Saar plebiscite is cited by many historians as the first step to war.
Read about the Saar Plebiscite in more detail
2.CONSCRIPTION and RE-ARMAMENT
Hitler began to build up his armed forces. In 1935 he introduced conscription (calling up men to the army). This broke the Treaty of Versailles, but Britain and France let him get away with it
3.RHINELAND
Hitler invaded the Rhineland on 7 March 1936.This broke the Treaty of Versailles.It was a bluff – the German army had only 22,000 soldiers and had orders to retreat if they met any resistance.But once again, Britain and France did nothing.
4.AUSTRIA
In 1938, Hitler took over Austria.First, Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazis to demand union with Germany.Then Hitler invaded Austria (11 March 1938).This broke the Treaty of Versailles, but Britain and France did nothing.
Source A
This cartoon was drawn by the British cartoonist Bernard Partridge for the satirical magazine Punch in February 1938. It shows Hitler as a poacher, stealing Austria.
Mussolini is shown as a bad game-keeper, failing to stop him; ‘I never heard a shot, Adolf’’, he is saying.
Watch the YouTube on the Anschluss
Question: Does the fact that the cartoonist of Source A is misrepresenting Austria mean that it is an unreliable source?
5.MUNICH
In 1938, Hitler tried to take over the Sudetenland. First, Hitler encouraged the Sudeten Nazis to demand union with Germany. Then, Hitler made plans to invade Czechoslovakia.
Neville Chamberlain appeased Hitler. At Munich, on 29 September 1938, Britain and France gave Hitler the Sudetenland.
Source B The caption reads: 'Europe can look forward to a Christmas of peace' (Hitler).
This British cartoon from October 1938 by Low, shows Hitler as Santa, popping into his sack, one-by-one, little countries – who had got into bed with the ‘French-British family’. His sack says: Deutschland Uber Alles (‘Germany over all’).
Question:What is the cartoonist of Source B saying about Hitler?
6.CZECHOSLOVAKIA
On 15 March 1939, Hitler’s troops marched into the rest of Czechoslovakia.This, for most British people, was the time when they realised that the only thing that would stop Hitler was a war.
7.USSR/NAZI PACT
In summer 1939, Hitler began to unfold his plan to take over Poland.First, the Germans in Danzig demanded union with Germany.Then, Hitler threatened war.Chamberlain promised the Poles that Britain would support them if Germany attacked Poland.In August 1939, Hitler made a secret treaty with Russia.He thought this would stop Britain & France helping Poland.
8.POLAND
In April 1939, Chamberlain announced the 'Polish Guarantee' - a promise to defend Poland if Hitler invaded (this was the event which ended appeasement).On 1 September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland.On 3 September 1939, Chamberlain declared war on Germany.
Appeasement
England footballers give the Nazi salute before a match in Germany in 1938 - a picture from German photograph archives
Nowadays, when we use the word 'appeasement', we take it to mean: 'giving in to a bully'. Consequently, many people have criticised Chamberlain for appeasing Hitler.
This is not quite fair, because in the 1930s, the word 'appeasement' meant what we would today call 'negotiation'; Chamberlain, realising that 'collective security' had failed, tried to negotiate peace with Hitler.
There were many reasons why Britain 'appeased' Hitler in the 1930s. Historians have ascribed every possible motive to Chamberlain - sheer abject cowardice, that he was duped by Hitler, that it was a noble attempt to prevent bloodshed, that he was buying time for Britain to re-arm... and many others!
The five most important reasons, however, were:
- Some British people approved of Hitler's policies.
- The British people hoped that a strong Germany would stop the growth of Communist Russia.
- Many people felt that events in Europe were not Britain's business.
- Many British people wanted peace.
- Many British people agreed with Hitler that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair.
Question:Look at the five most important reasons why Britain appeased Hitler.or each, discuss with a partner WHY this might have led Chamberlain to feel that he needed to give way to Hitler's demands?
In the 1930s, there were some people – most notably Winston Churchill – who opposed his policy. But at the time, most people thoroughly agreed with Chamberlain, and praised him.
Sources on Appeasement
Source C
This cartoon by the British cartoonist David Low appeared in the Evening Standard newspaper in July 1936. Hitler goose- steps across the ‘spineless leaders of democracy’. T he first 3 steps are labelled ‘Rearmament’, ‘Rhineland’ and ‘Danzig’.
Source D
This cartoon of February 1938 by the British cartoonist David Low shows Germany crushing Austria. Next in line is Czechoslovakia. At the back, Britain says to France, who is next-to-last: ‘Why should we take a stand about someone pushing someone else when it’s all so far away?’
Question: Study Sources A-D and list four things British people thought about Appeasement
Questions
1. Using Sources A–E make a list of 'points for' and points against' the policy of appeasement
2. Which of Sources A–D suggest Hitler would carry on as long as people kept appeasing him?
Appeasement in Action
The Sudeten Crisis
Before 1938, Britain had already given way to Hitler on a number of occasions, but it was the events of the Sudeten crisis which showed appeasement in action – trying to buy off Hitler by giving way to his demands.
On 11 March 1938, Hitler invaded Austria.It was clear he wanted to do the same in the Sudetenland.
On 7 September 1938, the German Sudeten Party demanded union with Germany.
- There were riots.
- German newsreels showed ‘evidence’ of Czech ‘atrocities’ against the Sudeten Germans.
- Hitler threatened to support the Sudeten Germans with military force.
Then Chamberlain intervened.
1. Chamberlain met Hitler at Berchtesgaden (15 September).
- Hitler promised him that this was the ‘last problem to be solved’.
- Chamberlain decided Hitler was ‘a man who can be relied upon’.
- Chamberlain persuaded the Czechs to hand over the Sudetenland.
2. Chamberlain met Hitler at Bad Godesberg (22 September).
- Hitler made more demands.
- At first Chamberlain refused, but then he decided that Czechoslovakia was not one of the ‘great issues’ which justified war, but just ‘a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing’.
3. Britain and France made a Pact with Hitler at Munich (29 September).
- They gave the Sudetenland to Germany.
- Czechoslovakia was not even invited to the talks.The Czechs were free to fight if they wished, but they had no support.They chose not to fight.
On 30 September, Chamberlain returned to England with his famous piece of paper.‘I believe it is peace for our time’, he told the cheering crowds.
On 1 October 1938, Hitler marched unopposed into the Sudetenland. He said that it was the start of a 1000-year German Reich (empire).
Source A
Question: Is it significant that Germans troops entering the Sudetenland were greeted as liberators and heroes?
Source B
This cartoon by the British cartoonist Sidney 'George' Strube appeared in the Daily Express on 3 October 1938 (shortly after the Munich Agreement). Chamberlain (on the right, with nothing but a hat and umbrella), confronts Mars (the God of War).
Question: Study Source C. Did Chamberlain get ANYTHING out of Hitler?
The Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939
A Nazi-Soviet Pact
On 23 August, 1939, the world was shocked when, suddenly, Russia and Germany signed a 'Non-aggression Pact'.
People would have been even more shocked if they had known at the time that, in addition, the two countries had made a number of a 'secret protocol' agreeing 'spheres of influence' in Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Poland. It amounted to an agreement to invade and divide the countries of Eastern Europe between them ... with Poland first on the list.
Eastern Europe in 1939; Germany and Russia invade Poland.
Source A
This 1939 cartoon was drawn for the American public by the US cartoonist Herb Block.
The Story of the Pact
a.Britain and Russia
Stalin knew that Hitler’s ultimate aim was to attack Russia.In 1939, he invited Lord Halifax, the British Foreign Secretary to go to Russia to discuss an alliance against Germany.The British feared Russian Communism and they believed that the Russian army was too weak to be of any use against Hitler.
In August 1939, with war in Poland looming, the British eventually sent a minor official called Reginald Ranfurly Plunckett-Ernle-Erle-Drax. He travelled by slow boat, not by plane. He did not have authority to make any decisions, and had to refer every question back to London. The talks dragged on.
The Russians asked if they could send troops into Poland if Hitler invaded. The British refused. The talks broke down.
b.Hitler and Russia
In August 1939, Hitler sent Ribbentrop, a senior Nazi, to Russia. He offered a Nazi-Soviet alliance – Russia and Germany would not go to war, but would divide Poland between them. Germany would allow Russia to annex Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland.
Stalin knew Hitler was lying, but he did not trust the British either – the Munich Agreement had convinced him that Britain and France would never dare to go to war with Hitler.
Stalin had two choices:
- If he made an alliance with Britain, he would end up fighting a war with Hitler over Poland.
- If he made an alliance with Germany, he would get half of Poland, and time to prepare for the coming war with Germany.
He chose the latter. On 23 August 1939, he signed the Pact with Hitler.
The Shock to the System
The British government had know about the Nazi-Soviet negotiations since the beginning of August but the Pact came as a complete surprise to the British public, who found it hard to believe that communist, Hitler-hating Russia had made an alliance with Nazi, Communist-hating Germany. They judged, correctly, that the Pact was a cynical lie to devour Poland.
The following Low cartoons reflect their amazement and outrage, as well as the hope/feeling that the two liars would get their come-uppance in the end.
Source B
This cartoon by the British cartoonist David Low was published in the Evening Standard newspaper on 20 September 1939. It shows Hitler, who is saying: 'The scum of the earth I believe?' and Stalin, who replies: 'The bloody assassin of the workers, I presume?'
Questions
- What elements indicate that they are allied?
- What indicates that the alliance is not likely to last?
- What do the storm clouds in the background symbolise?
- What does the dead figure between them represent?
Source C
This cartoon by the British cartoonist David Low was published in the Evening Standard newspaper on 21 October 1939. Having destroyed Poland, Hitler and Stalin stroll down their now-shared frontier.