Emotion
Definition -
‘Emotion is a transitory, valenced experience that is felt with some intensity as happening to the self, generated in part by a cognitive appraisal of situations and accompanied by both learned and innate physical responses.’
(A trait is a predisposition to a state). You may distinguish between emotional states and mood states although they can be fuzzy especially with basic states like anxious and depressed moods. Moods are basic feeling states such as energy and tension, which are not necessarily attached to an event and may last for hours. Have you ever awakened in a bad mood and stayed like that – apparently for no good reason? An emotion can last as long as the event and be brief although some can be complex e.g. as in German Shadenfreude: pleasure at others misfortune.
The word emotion comes from Latin and means to move or to stir up. Generally psychologists use the word emotion to refer to a show of feelings that are produced when important things happen to us. Emotions are relatively short lived and occur in response to events but can occur in remembering e.g. recall an embarrassing thing that you did in the past and re-experience it - do you feel embarrassed? It has been argued that motivation is involved in emotions in that positive and negative emotions are experienced when we come across reinforcing or punishing stimuli.
Of course, there are many problems with the definition of emotions. There are so many ways we can express what we see as emotional behaviours. For example Davitz 1970 found 556 words and phrases that are emotion related.
Emotion is a complex condition that arises in response to certain affectively toned experiences.
What we notice, or recognise is: -
The first component (the subjective experience of the emotion) - the affective bit - what we feel.
The second component is internal bodily reaction, especially those involving the autonomic nervous system - you might shake, or raise your voice almost unwillingly, in response to an experience.
The third component (cognitions about the emotion and associated situations) is the thoughts and beliefs that the emotion brings along with it and seems to come into the mind without effort, automatically. We feel joy as we have passed an exam; we think about all that means to us.
The fourth component (facial expression), we smile, frown, look disgusted are angry.
The fifth component (a global reaction) is related to the emotion - it might blacken your outlook on the whole world.
The sixth component (action tendency) is the behaviour that you produce in response to an emotion, you might shout or throw things if angry.
All of these components collect to become a particular emotion that we experience.
The emotional expressions that are universal are:- Happiness, Anger, Sadness, Disgust, Fear and Surprise. You might add guilt in here??
Where in the brain does emotion lie?
Amygdala is a centre highly related to emotion. Some suggest that anxiety disorders may be associated with hyperactivity of the central nucleus of the amygdala (perhaps due to increased production of endogenous anxiety-producing ligands. The amygdala is also implicated in the negative emotion of disgust.
Researchers that have stimulated areas of the brain in order to evaluate surgical removal of parts of the brain in the treatment of seizures have produced autonomic responses connected to fear and anxiety (the hypothalamus) but fear was not experienced as an emotion until the amygdala was stimulated.
Lesions of the amygdala show impairment of acquisition of a conditioned emotional response. The startle response of a man with a localised lesion of the right amygdala was not increased by the presence of an unpleasant emotion.
Damage to the amygdala interferes with the emotional effects on memory. If an event is accompanied by a strong emotional response then one is more likely to remember the event.
The part of the brain implicated in the control of rage is the Amygdala. The amygdala has also been implicated in psychopathology.
The orbitofrontal cortex is at the base of the frontal lobes and covers the part of the brain just above the orbits - the eye socket bones. Damage here has been examined in the famous case of Phineas Cage, a dynamite worker whose accident sent a steel rod through his cheek and through his brain and out through the top of his head. He survived but changed from being industrious and energetic and serious and became childish and irresponsible and thoughtless regarding others. Damage here, supported by several similar cases suggested that inhibitions and self-concern were reduced. In addition although they stayed sensitive to noxious stimulation the pain no longer produced an emotional reaction that bothered them.
Animal studies with chimpanzees have shown that after removal of the frontal lobes were removed the chimp no longer showed a temper tantrum when making an error in performing a task that led to a food reward. The chimp appeared to no longer be emotionally disturbed by making mistakes. Do you think we have the right to interfere in human's brains in order to alleviate anxiety or criminal tendencies.
Research traditions
Darwinian – (Darwin, 1872) Emotions have adaptive functions – they are universal.
Jamesian – (James, 1884) Emotions are bodily responses
Cognitive – (Arnold, 1960) Emotions are based on appraisals
Social constructivist - (Averill, 1980) Emotions are social constructions and serve social purposes.
The Darwinian Tradition
EMOTION IS INNATE
· Emotional expression is ADAPTIVE
· Readiness to face challenges
· Communicates intentions to others
Evidence supporting Darwin
· Universal facial expressions
· Infants
· Basic emotions
The Jamiesian Tradition
BODILY CHANGES = EMOTION
‘We are afraid because we run’.
· Experience of emotion is due to peripheral responses. Conscious aspect arises later when the brain observes the response.
· Distinguishable patterns of arousal for each emotion
Evidence in Support of James
· Pattern of autonomic changes DOES vary with different emotional states.
· People reliving emotional experiences show different patterns of autonomic activity
· Hohmann (spinal cord injuries reduce peripheral responses – less intense emotion)
The James-Lange theory (peripheralist theory)
The James-Lange theory states that each emotion is caused by a specific physical response to a stimulus before we can experience different emotions we have to experience different 'bodily changes' (page 401)
Emotion is inferred or constructed from instinctive peripheral physiological responses. Events provoke body reflex responses and emotion results from the perception of those changes. For example, smiling leads to happiness and crying to sadness (does anyone here feel relieved after they cry? Or better afterwards?)
Support for theory
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis
· If you manipulate physiological systems you may induce emotion. Artificial manipulation of facial expression to produce smiles and frowns seems to generate the appropriate emotion. (But Emotional experience is determined in part by feedback from facial expressions - if you frown at people they may frown back and likewise with smiles.)
Movements of the face provide sufficient peripheral information to fuel the experience of emotion.
Criticism of James- Lange theory Physiological mechanisms are too slow
Not specific enough
Instead – direct CNS experience of emotion with or without feedback: thalamus indicated.
Spinal injuries that reduce autonomic feedback seem to experience normal emotional responses.
More recent:
Various parts of CNS involved
NS is involved
Strong emotions CAN bypass cortex (thalamus to amygdala)
The Cannon Bard Theory (centralist theory)
The Canon-Bard theory of emotion suggests that Emotion (and stress) are direct expression of central brain systems and that emotion is produced when an event or an object is perceived by the thalamus which then conveys the relevant information simultaneously to the cerebral cortex and to the skeletal muscles and autonomic nervous system. Unlike James-Lange theory the cerebral cortex plays and important role in evaluating the emotional significance of the stimulus.
Support
Stimulation of various areas of the brain provokes emotional reactions in animals.
Drugs like heroin which may be related to endorphins produce euphoria. The use of prozac may compensate for a reduced level of serotonin. Thus clinical conditions relating to emotion may be linked to neurotransmitters.
Criticism
The thalamus is not the ‘emotion centre of the brain. Various structures are implicated eg the amygdala. Drugs studies show problems as drug effects on emotion are not as straightforward as implied. Nicotine in cigarettes affects the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. But some find smoking relaxing and other stimulating and energising.
Schachter and Singer - Cognitive Labelling theory
This involves the labelling of physiological reactions. Their research showed that the effects of drugs depends on the person’s cognition. Subjects injected with adrenaline and given explanations regarding its effects. If told that the drug would increase heart rate etc. they did not experience these physiological responses as emotion. If given no explanation but were with a confederate who pretended to feel angry or happy then they picked up on these emotions. They experienced either of these emotions more intensely and the adrenaline was not connected to any particular emotion.
This theory is similar to James and Lange as people label emotions using perceptions of their own somatic activity. But labelling is a cognitive process that reflects the person’s beliefs about a situation. If people believe they have a reason to be angry they will perceive their bodily symptoms as anger etc. Interestingly, film-makers use music with rhythms that mimic cardiac acceleration into soundtrack when something frightening or exciting is going to happen.
Personality may affect mood or internal emotional state. e.g. happy to sad calm to frustrated, peaceful to agitated. Some aspects of mood are related to difference in activation between the right and left frontal regions. Relatively higher activation of the left frontal region as compared with the right is associated with positive mood and negative or dysphoric mood is associated with higher activity of the right as compared with the left.
Changes in emotionality may appear with stroke and head injury. Heller (1990) reported that up to 60% of people with left frontal-lobe lesions met the DSM III criteria for diagnosis of depression. Damage to the left frontal region has been found to be associated with major or minor depression as found in 60% stroke victims, (Starkstein & Robinson, 1988). The probability of depression is much higher in the left than the right so the argument that a head injury might make one depressed is not sustained.
Right hemisphere damage may be euphoric and unconcerned about the physical and psychological consequences of their brain damage. They may also show inappropriate affect, bursting into tears for no reason as so happy when told of a sad event eg a death.
Rehabilitation of emotional functioning is especially important. We might think that cognitive and physical disabilities would be the most dire consequences of brain injury, a long-term study suggests that individuals who sustain head injury are most disabled by emotional and personality disturbances (Lezak, 1987). Unfortunately, rehabilitation of emotional functioning is especially difficult. Discussion of problems is encouraged during psychotherapy but this requires a certain level of cognitive functioning, language skills and interpersonal conversational skills and self-evaluation. These are all taxed in those with brain injuries. In particular, lack of self-awareness and lack of self-evaluatory capabilities is a problem (Prigatano, 1991).
Obviously, some of the accidents and surgery mentioned before have been rather dramatic and have shown significant effects on emotional functioning. However, even mild head injury can produce emotional changes including depression, anxiety, loss of patience and increased temper (Levin, Gary et al., 1987).
Euphoria
· Right hemisphere damage may reslt in euphoria and lack of concern about the physical and psychological consequences of their brain damage. They may also show inappropriate affect, bursting into tears for no reason as so happy when told of a sad event eg a death.
Rehabilitation of emotional functioning is especially important - a long-term study suggests that individuals who sustain head injury are most disabled by emotional and personality disturbances (Lezak, 1987).
Disease
Depression (a global reaction?)
· Heller (1990) reported that up to 60% of people with left frontal-lobe lesions met the DSM III criteria for diagnosis of depression.
· Damage to the left frontal region has been found to be associated with major or minor depression as found in 60% stroke victims, (Starkstein & Robinson, 1988)
· The probability of depression is much higher in the left than the right so the argument that a head injury might make one depressed is not sustained.
Disease
Huntington's disease typically is manifested by changes in emotional functioning (Lieberman 1979) Fifty percent have major depressive episodes or mood. This is similar for Parkinson's disease. With Huntington's they also tend to be irritable and apathetic and have an increased prevalence of personality disorders. Psychcoticism is not unknown but hallucinations are rarer. Their behaviour is reminiscent of the inappropriate behaviour of individuals with frontal lobe damage (Cummings & Benson, 1988).
It is important to remember that mood disorders in brain-damaged patients are not always the direct consequences of damage to the areas of the brain that mediate emotional function. They may be a functin of understable distress at loss of cognitive function and independence.
Inappropriate sexual behaviour
Removal of inhibitions as seen in damage to the orbitofrontal cortex may remove inhibitions and may result in sexual advances being made in inappropriate situations.
Laughter therapy