Cognitive Skills/Strategy
Description of the classification
We present an overview of our classification of cognitive skills and strategies that are the result of research started in 1992 to develop a basis for the MISA instructional design methodology. The classification combines previous work ona meta-knowledge taxonomy, on software engineering taxonomiesand educational taxonomies.The appendix presents a correspondence between these taxonomies to provide a foundation for our Cognitive Skills /Strategy classification.
Level one groups four high-level cognitive skills and strategies from simple to complex. The second level presents more specialized skills and strategies. The third level presents even more specialized strategies. The classification could be decomposed further.
Short definitions are provided forlevel 2 terms of the classification.
Cognitive Skills/StrategiesLevels / Description for level 2
1 / 2 / 3 / Persons are able to or are involved in…….
Receive / 1. Acknowledge / Mobilizing their attention to some knowledge, without invoking long-term memory operations
2. Remember / 2.1 Identify/Find
2.2 Memorize / Using their knowledge in memory to identify or store some knowledge in long-term memory
Reproduce / 3. Specify / 3.1 Illustrate
3.2 Discriminate
3.3 Explain / Using abstract knowledge (concepts, procedures and principles) to specify examples, traces or specific statements
4. Translate / Transforming some knowledge to another language or format at the same level of abstraction
5. Apply / 5.1 Use
5.2 Simulate / Using some abstract knowledge (concepts, procedures, principle) to extract useful more specific knowledge
Create / 6. Analyze / 6.1 Deduce
6.2 Classify
6.3 Predict
6.4 Diagnose / Transforming some abstract knowledge into equally abstracts components or more specific ones combined in a new way that provide new knowledge
7. Repair / Adding new components or modified components to some model of abstract knowledge
8.Synthesize / 8.1 Induce
8.2 Plan
8.3 Model/Construct / Building abstract knowledge model from more specific information or knowledge
Self-Manage / 9. Evaluate / Using values (generality, soundness, validity, …) to add properties to some knowledge (meta-knowledge)
10. Self- control / 10.1 Initiate/Influence
10.2 Adapt/Control / Using meta-knowledge to process (memorize, reproduce, create, evaluate) one self cognitive skills and strategies for self-directed behaviour
The innovation here is to represent cognitive skills and strategies as generic processes with their inputs, their products and the major steps or cognitive actions that must be performed. For example, in the following table, the “5.2-Simulate a process” skill, a sub-class of the level “5-Apply skills”, is compared to the “8.3-Construct a process” skill, which is a sub-class of the “8-Synthesize” skills in the taxonomy.We can use these descriptions to model each generic process in an IMS-LD format thus providing a skeleton for the method of a learning design.
Skill / Input / Product / Process FlowSimulate a process / A process, its procedures, inputs, products and control principles. / A trace of the procedure : set of facts obtained through the application of the procedures in a particular case / - Choose input resources objects (data)
- Select the first procedure to execute
- Execute it and produce a first result
- Select the next procedure and execute it
- Use the control principles to control the flow of execution
Construct a process / Definition constraints such as relations between inputs and products of the process and/or required steps in the process. / A description of the process: its inputs, products, sub-procedures with their input and output, and the process control principles. / - Assign a name to the procedure to be constructed
- Relate this main procedure to a specific input and product resource, respecting the definition constraints
- Decompose the procedure, respecting the definition constraints
- Continue to a point where well understood small procedures are defined.
From the precise descriptions of these two generic skills, we can easily see that a learning design aiming at the acquisition of procedural knowledge such as “Information search on the Internet” will be very different if the goal (the learning objective) is to simulate that process or to construct it. In the first case, a number of walks through the process will probably be sufficient, while in the second case, a project-based scenario where learners and engaged in a more complex problem-solving or constructive activity is a better suited learning strategy.
For the learner, a cognitive skill/strategy is an intellectual ability he should be able to perform during the run of the learningdesign.For the trainer, it is the process he is to support.For the designer, it is the cognitive strategy that guides the design: if the learning objective is to remember, to diagnose or to synthesize some knowledge, the designer should provide memorizing, diagnosis or synthesising activities.
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What follows are precise and operational definitions of each of the four groups of level 1 cognitive skill/strategies that are classified according to the kind of input to be processed, and output to be produced, accompanied with some examples.
Level 1 Cognitive Skills and Strategies
Skill/ Strategy / Inputs / Outputs / Process examplesReceive / External or internal (to the user) stimuli / Facts or knowledge identified or stored in memory / Acknowledge events, movements, emotions, social context. Identify and store facts, knowledge in long term memory
Reproduce / Knowledge and structured knowledge models / Facts obtained by instantiation or reformulation / Explain in one’s words or illustrate a concept, a procedure, a principle using examples. Use a knowledge model to explain some facts. Simulate a procedure.
Create / Knowledge and structured knowledge models / New knowledge and structured knowledge models at the same or higher level of abstraction / Classify objects in a taxonomy. Replace faulty components in a system. Plan a project. Build a model or a system.
Self-manage / Knowledge and structured knowledge models, plus knowledge properties / Evaluated knowledge or models by assigning knowledge properties that can be used to orient self or other people’s cognitive strategies / Evaluate the validity of information. Assess one’s competence with regard to a process model. Initiate a change process form the evaluation of a situation. Apply a strategy to improve one’s learning or performance.
The following four tables provide similar definitions and activity examples for level 2 and 3 cognitive skill/strategies.
Receiving Skills and Strategies
Skill/ Strategy / Inputs / Outputs / Process examplesAcknowledge / External or internal (to the user) information / Facts or behaviour showing that the focus of attention in on the incoming information. / Pay attention to some events or to a change of attitude of self or someone else.
Remember / Identify/Find / External or internal (to the user) information / Existing knowledge retrieved from memory, triggered by the incoming information / React to the description of a situation by a related fact. Repeat a set of movement just demonstrated. Recognize a familiar social context
Memorize / External or internal (to the user) information / Knowledge stored in memory grouping the incoming information / Register the information without transformation. Memorize a process or a song.
Reproduction Skills and Strategies
Skill/ Strategy / Inputs / Outputs / Process examplesSpecify / Illustrate / Abstract knowledge (Concepts, procedure or principles) / Examples, traces orstatements obtained as instances of the abstract knowledge. / Give examples of a calculation process, or a set of classes of animals, or the application of the laws of economy.
Discriminate / Two or more concepts, procedure or principles / Discriminating examples of one that are not example of the others / Give examples to distinguishmammals from reptiles.
Explain / Abstract knowledge (Concepts, procedure or principles) / Concepts, procedure or principles with more association to others / Add attributes to a concept definition to give a more detailed meaning. Complete a process by adding an implicit step.
Translate / Abstract knowledge (Concepts, procedure or principles) / Similar knowledge presented in another language or form / Represent a natural language statement by a schema or a graphic. Describe a situation by analogy from another one.
Apply / Use / Abstract knowledge or structured knowledge model / Instances of the models useful to attain a goal / Use a form to calculate your income tax. Choose. Take an abstract description of a situation to provide a set of examples to which a transformation must be applied.
Simulate / Abstract knowledge or structured knowledge model / Instances produced by giving precise values to attributes in amodel / Vary the parameters of an ecosystem to examine the impact on the distribution of species. Follow step by step the execution of a workflow to find what inputs will produce a desired outcome.
Creation Skills and Strategies
Skill/ Strategy / Inputs / Outputs / Process examplesAnalyze / Deduce / Goal, Given data, permitted operations / Suite of permitted operations relating given data to the goal. / Deduce the possible options from the analysis of a budget. Find the shortest path between two locations. Complete a crossword puzzle.
Classify / Taxonomy and objects to be classified / Classes of the taxonomy to which each object belongs / Determine the categories of vehicles for a certain type of automobile. Find an appropriate procedure for a certain decision.
Predict / Process, classes of possible outcomes of the process, input data / Classesoutcomesof the process depending on the input data / Predict the possible outcome of a medical operation from the patient’s properties. Find the risk of changing some parameters in nuclear energy station. Predict one’s behaviour in certain situations.
Diagnose / System of components, quality norm of components / List of defective components / Identify errors in the execution of a dance movement. Find faulty components in an automobile.
Repair / Abstract model and its components / Modified model with different components. / Change the connexions in a chain of audiovisual components. Prescribe a treatment to change the health record of a patient.
Synthesize / Induce / Set of information, facts, and examples about individuals. / Concept, procedure or principle that have the individual as instances / Induce a relation between variables from a set of experimental data. Construct a taxonomy of computer types.
Plan / Set of products to build and constraints / Processes that output products respecting the constraints / Plan the execution of a project. Plan the movement in a artistic skating show.
Model/Build / Objects, abstract knowledge and constraints. / Knowledge model integrating the objects respecting the constraints / Build an information system.Design a course. Establish the architectural concept of a new building.
Self-Manage (Metacognition) Skills and Strategies
Skill/ Strategy / Inputs / Outputs / Process examplesEvaluate / Abstract knowledge or structured models / Properties of knowledgeassociated to the knowledge or model / Evaluate the reliability or validity of a principle. Evaluate one’s competency for a certain task. Qualify the quality of social interactions in a group
Self-Control / Initiate/ Influence / Abstract knowledge or structured models associated to properties of knowledge / Modified knowledge or models taking in account the evaluated properties of knowledge. / Initiate an exercise program to reduce one’s weight. Start improving the social climate in an organization. Start convincing a learner of the validity and usefulness of some knowledge.
Adapt / Control / Abstract knowledge or structured models associated to properties of knowledge / Intervention process to improve the cognitive properties of the knowledge or models. / Plan and execute a training program to adapt one’s ability for project management. Define a program to improve one’s own or other’s learning strategies.
Appendix – Comparison with between classifications
Cognitive Skills/Strategies / Meta-knowledge(Pitrat) / Generic problems
(KADS) / Cognitive objectives
(Bloom) / Skills cycle
(Romiszowski)
Levels
1 / 2 / 3
Receive / 1. Acknowledge / Attention
2. Remember / 2.1 Identify/Find
2.2 Memorize / Knowledge Search and Storage / Memorize / Perceptual acuteness and discrimination
Reproduce / 3. Specify / 3.1 Illustrate
3.2 Discriminate
3.3 Explain / Understand / Interpretation
4. Translate / Procedure Recall Schema Recall
5. Apply / 5.1 Use
5.2 Simulate / Knowledge Use, Expression / Apply / Procedure Recall Schema Recall
Create / 6. Analyze / 6.1 Deduce
6.2 Classify
6.3 Predict
6.4 Diagnose / Knowledge Discovery / Prediction, Supervision, Classification, Diagnosis / Analyze / Analysis
7. Repair / Repair / Synthesis
8. Synthesize / 8.1 Induce
8.2 Plan
8.3 Model/ Build / Planning, Design, Modeling / Synthesize / Synthesis
Re-invest / 9. Evaluate / Knowledge Acquisition / Evaluate / Evaluation
10. Self- control / 10.1 Initiate/Influence
10.2 Adapt/control / Initiation, Continuation, Control
References
Bloom, Benjamin S. (1975) Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: the Classification of Educational Goals. New York: D. McKay.
Breuker J. and Van de Velde W. (1994) CommonKads Library for Expertise Modelling. IOS Press, Amsterdam, 360 pages.
Paquette, G. (1999) Meta-knowledge Representation for Learning Scenarios Engineering, in S. Lajoie et M. Vivet (Eds), Proceedings of AI-Ed’99 in AI and Education - Open learning environments, IOS Press, 1999.
Pitrat J. (1991). Métaconnaissance, avenir de l’Intelligence Artificielle. Hermès, Paris, 1991.
Romiszowski A. J. (1981) Designing Instructional Systems Kogan Page London/Nichols Publising, New York, 415 pages.
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