Washington’s Presidency – Ch. 8, “A New Republic,” pgs. 194-205
Overall main idea: Between 1789 and 1790, the new United States government struggled to establish itself amidst sectional and Constitutional interpretation differences across a large, diverse country.
Washington’s America
The diversity of Americans in 1789 made it difficult for the new national government to serve all of their interests.
The Uniformity of New England
Ethnically and religiously homogenous, New England abolished slavery and established women’s public education in the early history of the United States.
One of the most populous regions; 1 million of 4 million Americans lived in NE
Congregationalist Puritanism was state-sponsored religion
Concept of Republican Motherhood led to early women’s public education
Women outnumbered men as men pushed west for more land
Little need for slavery (little agriculture) and didn’t fit with strong Republican ideals
Mostly favored Federalist tendencies
Mid-Atlantic Pluralism
Ethnically and religiously heterogeneous, the Mid-Atlantic states offered more religious freedom and gradually abolished slavery.
Fewer than 40% of population was English heritage – rest are other Europeans
Better economic conditions than NE – wheat growing leads to its name as “the breadbasket” of the US; strong port cities
Slavery is gradually abolished, but racism continues
Diverse political leanings also; many upper class support Federalism, many middle and lower classes support anti-Federalism
The Slave South and Its Backcountry
The South’s reliance on cash crop agriculture continued pre-Revolution conditions of slavery and conflict between low-country planters and backcountry farmers.
South was the most populous region of the early US because of slavery
Some manumission (freeing of slaves) occurred, but slavery endured as a foundation of southern economy
Politics of the south were divided between more wealthy eastern low-country planters and poorer western backcountry farmers; planters were usually English and Anglican, while backcountry farmers were often Scots-Irish and Presbyterian or Baptist
South was mostly anti-Federalist
The Growing West
American settlement of the West grew rapidly in the 1780s due to southern backcountry farmers’ search for unclaimed land and independence from planter domination.
Americans outnumbered Indians in the West (between the Appalachian Mtns and the Mississippi River)
Conflict between American settlers and Indians was sporadic but could be very violent
Life for western settlers was very poor and difficult, including filthy conditions and violence
Many settlers were “squatters,” who occupied land in the hopes of eventually being granted title to it
Westerners’ politics were self-interested, desiring independence and economic growth
Forging a New Government
American politicians struggled to establish a successful government around the framework of the Constitution.
“Mr. President” and the Bill of Rights
Washington attempted to establish respectability to the new Presidency and the Bill of Rights were adopted to protect individual liberties and satisfy anti-Federalists of limits on the national government’s power.
Washington called “Mr. President”
Madison submitted 19 amendments to become the first Bill of Rights – 12 are accepted by Congress and 10 are ratified by the states
First 8 amendments protect individual liberties from the government
The last two reserve powers to the states
North Carolina and Rhode Island ratify the Constitution after the Bill of Rights are added
Departments and Courts
In 1789, the creation of the cabinet strengthened executive power and the Judiciary Act of 1789 compromised national and state interests.
State Department (foreign affairs), Treasury Department (Finances), and War Department (war) were already created under the Confederation, but they were now tied more to the executive.
Judiciary Act of 1789 – established the Supreme Court and a system of lower federal courts, inc. 13 federal district courts (one for each state) and three circuit courts of appeals – only applied to Constitutional and national laws, not state; state courts held all other judiciary powers
Revenue and Trade
To generate revenue to pay off government debt, Congress passed the Tariff Act of 1789 and the Tonnage Act of 1789.
Madison proposed both; Tariff Act levied a 5 percent duty on most imported goods, with up to 50 percent on certain goods
Tonnage Act was originally tougher on Great Britain and other countries that did not have a commercial treaty with the US, but it failed because of sectional problems – the South feared NE dominance of trade and rising tobacco prices; the North feared losing trade with Great Britain
Hamilton and the Public Credit
To improve the national treasury department and pay off debt, Alexander Hamilton made four reports that called for government assumption of state debts, issuing bonds, excise tax on whiskey, a national bank, and protection of industry.
Alexander Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury
Hamilton was well-bred member of the political elite, very smart in economics, but also egotistical, ambitious, and overbearing
Hamilton prepared four reports on the nation’s economic conditions and how to finance them:
1. Federal government should fund the national debt and full value, not states; fund it with government bonds
2. Federal government should create an excise tax on whiskey to help with debt revenue and to establish governmental authority for internal taxes on citizens
3. Federal government should charter a national bank to serve as the financial agent of the government, make loans to businesses, create a market for bonds and securities, and provide stable national security
4. Federal government should promote industry, specifically with subsidies and protective tariffs – “protectionism”
Reaction and Opposition
Many representatives opposed Hamilton’s economic plan, especially among sectional differences, but it ultimately passed for the most part.
About half of the representatives, many ordinary citizens, and speculators owned the national debt, and so wanted it to be paid off.
Some objected over Hamilton’s plan being unfair to the original debt holders, who had sold their stake during the difficult economic crisis
Some objected that Hamilton intended to create a permanent national debt where it never paid off, but only paid interest, so ensuring the public’s self-interested support and stake in the government
The Federal government assuming state debts seemed unfair to the southern states, which had already paid back a large share of their debts, unlike the northern states
Compromise – southern states (like Virginia’s Madison and Jefferson) accept the assumption of the state debt and Hamilton influences northerners to establish the national capital in between Maryland and Virginia, slave-holding southern states
Debate over interpretation of the Constitution flares up – strict constructionists (like Jefferson and Madison) argue that the Federal government only has the right to do what the Constitution strictly and specifically says it can do, and that the rest of the powers are reserved to the states; loose constructionists (like Hamilton and Washington) argue that the Federal government has broader powers according to the “necessary and proper” clause of the Constitution, which says Congress has the right to make all laws which are necessary and proper to exercise its powers, giving the Federal government more than the delegated powers
Washington signs Hamilton’s bill into law, including the national bank and most of his original recommendations but little of the pro-industry components
Overall main idea: Between 1789 and 1790, the new United States government struggled to establish itself amidst sectional and Constitutional interpretation differences across a large, diverse country.