Labhis1
History of American Labor-
revised 10/05
COLONIAL PERIOD:
The arrival of colonists created a work structure in which many people–not yet “workers” in the truest sense–began to ask basic questions how can we make our lives better, by
1. individual action, or social mobility
2. Collective activity–the problem is what form of organization will help us?–temporary/permanent?–join with bosses/independent?–exclude some workers or take them all?
What are the goals? What about the risks and reprisals?
As the European powers expanded, they continued to participate in the global economy, which had been in existence for centuries–trade inevitably led to domination and resistance–as far back as 1300 BCE, the time of the Trojan War between the Greeks and the Trojans, but let’s look at the world of the 1400's
Major colonial powers all operated under the mercantile system, which was designed to create colonies to enrich the mother country–other elements had other motives, like bring Christianity to savages, but economic and social power was fundamental–so much so that the monarchies became rigid and, in times of economy distress, desperate to squeeze as much wealth out of a colony as possible–creates resistance
Under the mercantile system, the first theory was that the countries prospered by increasing exports of finished goods while collecting precious metals in return, which could be used to finance the continental wars over religious differences among England, France and the Dutch–the state was the major player, either colonizing directly, as Spain, France and Holland did, or by granting exclusive charters to private speculators, as the English did–ironically, mercantilism did not disappear until the appearance of Adam Smith’s influential book, The Wealth of Nations, which preached unrestricted capitalism, just at the time when insurgent American businessmen were creating the movement for American independence.
One of the basic tenets of mercantilism, for example, was the compelling of colonies to buy finished/manufactured goods exclusively from the mother country–ran contrary to “free trade” and eventually got the British king into the revolutionary situation in the 1770's-
a lot of the strength of mercantilism was developing a fleet of ships and controlling the trading routes–led to national conflicts and to free sailing buccaneers, who operated with the tolerance of the British monarchy, who saw that these private enterprisers would undermine Spanish power
At any rate, one important aspect of mercantilism–which we will continue to express as “negotiating the state”--The govt. was immediately involved in labor relations--both business and workers accepted some sort of govt. regulation as normal, even though labor objected to specific policies at different times over the next 400 years--got away from it 100 years later (c. 1870), when laissez-faire capitalism/robber barons were rampant, and then returned in the New Deal (1932) to govt. control.
THEME: government as part of the class struggle
(following from Richard B. Morris. Government and Labor in Early America (New York: 1946)
In England, mercantilism was based upon two pillars:
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•the Acts of Trade, controlling external relations and control of foreign trade, which tried to guarantee that the colonial economy would be controlled by Mother England, and
•the Tudor Industrial Code, which tried to guarantee profits by guaranteeing adequate labor at subsistence wages.
1. Compulsory labor--required that all youths serve apprenticeships--anyone who refused to work, along with gypsies, thieves, peddlers, palmists, were subject to whipping and imprisonment--children were to be taught a trade and set to work.
eventually, deportation, like Lucky Luciano, became normal, as a way to populate The New World.
Puritanism: idleness was a vice, though it became in Calvin’s mind, confused with a hierarchial system in which predestination was important--allowed the wealthy to remain wealthy. Poor Richard: “Leisure is the time for doing something useful” (cf The Protestant Ethic and the Rise of Capitalism)
In the colonies, “pervaded by the intense resentment if idleness often associated with pioneer lands,” (Morris, p. 4), compulsory labor became an obsession
THEME: culture /religion justifies class system--
Ideology of wealth as deserved. Poverty resulted from a defect of character, and was even part of God’s plan in predestination
Leisure time is work time--idleness is the Devil’s workshop--unless you’re rich(cf.The Theory of the Leisure Class)
2. Public Works--In New England, all males between 16-60, freemen and servants, had to work at various times of the year--during King Phillip’s War and Pequot War, men had to work farms of soldiers who were away--fine of double the daily wage was levied for non-compliance
3. Workhouse Programs--as early as 1658, Plymouth Colony passed an act for “vagrants, idle persons, rebellious children and stubborn servants” were compelled to work. In the period before the Revolution, some subsidized industries like manufacture of cotton, woolen and linen goods used workhouse residents--prison labor become a constant until 1999--assured supply of cheap labor while relieving town of expenses of welfare as we know it
MAXIMUM WAGE FIXING AND RESTRAINTS ON COMBINATIONS--central control over wages and prices was first attempted in 1349 (Ordinance of Laborers) and 1351 (Statute of Laborers)--claimed that workers had to “be charitably dealt with” but set maximum wages--fined masters who paid more than maximum wages--rates set by Justice of the Peace in local area, but J of P were required to be “men of property and prominence” in their localities--so the gentry (ruling class) was able to make political decisions affecting their own economic welfare!–moreover, the Statute of Laborers, passed in the years following the Black Plague, made collective action, or concerted activity, a criminal offense--all of the colonies (Eng/France/Spanish) experimented with similar medieval methods of control--based upon centralized monarchy-
The major problem of colonizing the so-called New World (it was not “new” or “undiscovered” to the 32 million Native Americans who lived there in highly advanced civilizations) was to find someone to work the enterprises
In Mexico, mercantilism flourished because there was an enormous supply of precious metals (gold, silver) and the Spanish conquest developed the natives into a slave labor force–had elaborate labor structures, like encomiendas, which are certainly worth a course in themselves
In North America, it was very different–the natives were organized in self-sufficient tribes and nations and had no need or interest in becoming a work force–the tribes were also mobile and could avoid enslavement–had not interest in voluntarily working for the British land grantors
The French were interested in trading pelts, a variant on precious metals, so that there was no “labor,” only exchange between the traders and the natives
The English began a different pattern that involved large land grants to individuals, who then had to populate their holdings–the development of these holdings were also a reflection iof climate and geography
It is essential, as Who Built shows, that workers history was very different in the three basic areas of colonial America:
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- Southern colonies, which developed large-scale agriculture–originally started as tobacco colonies, since tobacco could be grown on small plots and was called a “poor-man’s crop” (WB, 56)–from 1620-1670, most of the immigration was indentured servants, but the conditions were so terrible that there were uprisings of indentured servants, and the planters began to import more slaves–VA went from a “society with slaves” to a “slave society” (WB, p. 66). so the two most important economic groups became the masters and the slaves
- Middle colonies (including Maryland, New York, NJ, PA)) which had a mixed topography and a variety of labor systems–in many ways, MD was considered to be the most tolerant of the colonies,
- New England, which quickly created a society of freeholders, around nucleated towns, with a different religion–family labor, with the gender divisions, became an important economic aspect–WB claims that “family households were at the center of economic activity and the basis on which society was built.” (p. 121)–a big social dislocation occurred when the family farm no longer survived as this economic basis–began with the children (like the Factory Girls) moving into industrial work on a temporary basis, but expanded after the panics of 1837 when whole families moved into urban areas–for much of the 19th century, workers organizations/political action dreamed of a return to the era of yeomanry–“Vote yourself a farm”–the availability of land was, of course, dependant on displacing the original occupants
By 1700, an estimated 130,000 migrants had immigrated from the British Isles to Virginia and Maryland alone–huge pressure relief for the increasing capitalism in the British Isles–the Enclosure Acts, the occupation of Ireland–because of sheer numbers, and favorable agricultural conditions, the colonies quickly began to take on a life of its own–
Land of the free/home of the brave--50% of MD settlers came as either slaves or indentured servants–in the period of 1725-1750, 25,000 servants and convicts came to MD–same number to VA–“redemptioners” sold themselves upon arrival to reimburse the ship captain for transportandthey were usually skilled tradesmen–in period of 1745-1775, 8,846 convicts, 9,035 servants and 3, 324 slaves landed at Annapolis
According to Page Smith’s article “From These Beginnings” in Portrait of America, –in the 18th century, it was estimated that London had 6,000 adult and 9,300 child beggars—in the whole country of 10 million, estimated 50,000beggars, 20,000 vagrants, 10,000 idlers, 100,000 prostitutes, 10,000 rogues and vagabonds, 80,000 criminals, 1,041,000 on parish relief.–half the population was below “the poverty line”–were considered “surplus” and were sent to colonies–pauper children, whose life expectancy was very low, were also shipped—in 1733,the average hard liquor consumed in London was 56 gallons per adult
“Spirits”and “crimps”–even abducted children, whose parents warned them against being bad lest the crimps get them!
Under contract, these indentured servants had no rights–one issue was that a female who got pregnant, and was unable to work for the time of her “laying in” had her period of indenture extended–often impregnated/raped by the master–in some cases, this was an intention and the colony of VA passed a statute making the practice illegal
According to a report in 1697, most workers in MD were employed planting tobacco-ratio of servants to freemen was 6 to 1–in 1707, Governor Seymour reported that MD had 3,003 white servants, 4.657 slaves out of a total population of 33, 833–a minimum of 500 servants were entering MD every year, and then became freemen when their terms expired–the records of freemen were mixed: some became vagabonds again, or worked as itinerant laborers while others moved to the frontier, took land and settled as “guardian’s of the frontier”–as Bacon’s Rebellion proved, they had a different class perspective on economics and politics–always fighting with Eastern land speculators
In 1755, the figures showed a total population of 107, 209 whites, including 6.871 servants and 1,981 convicts, and total “Negroes” of 46, 356
a jumbled period, when classes become really established--when workers become workers, a clearly identified class--a jumble of economic activity, very fluid, affecting the levels of organization--class structure carried over from the Old World--both Spain and England but the economy presented many opportunities to “escape” being a worker
country populated mainly by wage laborers, though the availability of land and the agricultural pursuits made a fluid society. Many colonies in south were settled by large capitalists, who used various form of wage labor to settle. Shortage of labor became a major issue, creating tensions for the same reason that it does today: labor short, wages go up.
In America, town first set rates for quasi-public workers: porters, carmen, draymen, millers, smiths, chimney sweeps, grave diggers, pilots--fees for services, like corn grinding, slaughtering, sawing wood, were also set by the town--some price control, on assizes of bread, grain, leather, bricks--also commercial prices, like meals/drinks in taverns, were also set--elaborate structure, but who enforced it?
Commons claims that “Scarcity of capital, labor, and raw materials, as well as the monopolistic grants, frequently placed the consumer at a bargaining disadvantage in his dealings with producers of commodities.(I, p. 49)
While employers were fined for paying above the rate, workers were penalized as criminal offense for refusing to work at the statutory rate, just as it was illegal for workers to combine to secure higher wages
laws in Plymouth Colony also established long hours of work, using religious theory that man was naturally sinful and that any time not at work would be in trouble--Idle hands are the Devil’s Workshop--religion used to justify worsening conditions for workers
A strong class system was here originally, all stereotypes to the contrary, and it got more extreme as the colonies approached the AmRev–land speculations was the largest source of riches–“It is almost a proverb that Every great fortune made here within these 50 years has been by land.” (Philadelphian, 1767. Quoted in Gary B. Nash, “The Transformation of European society”)–colonies had to build almshouses and workhouses, and the rate of poverty was not confined to the ill or elderly or infirm–even though the total wealth of each colony grew, so did the gap between rich and poor
By 1670 New England's European population was about 50,000 and the Colonists were thriving, living an average 20 years longer than their overseas counterparts. Their population would double by 1700. Conversely, Indians had been decimated by Europeanborne diseases in the plagues of 161621, and every passing year found them with less game and less land.–led to the Peqout Massacre (1637) and to King Phillip’s War (1675-77) in Central Mass and northen CT, but also to a decrease of potential workers–the disease-related population decline in the 1300's, for example, led to wage increases and to concerted activities
As the population grew in the colonies, larger cities around the ports developed with a real working class–dressed like workers with leather aprons, plain hair and long trousers (WB, p. 156)
the ambition of every worker was to become an artisan and then a master artisan, or mechanic, which involved several years of apprenticeship
1. laborer
2. apprentice
3.journeyman
4. master, who worked, bought raw materials, maintained the shop, sold the products, trained apprentices, hired journeymen, provided some tools–mastery was a significant concept, like manly, a source of pride and status, independence, control over the work process–men like Ben Franklin (printer) and Paul Revere (silversmith) became famous for political action
Seamen developed a sense of solidarity that was almost global–associated trades to the sailing/trade industries (shipwrights, iron makers, stevedores)–first examples of cross-training: workers worked to load ships, hauling cargo and advancing to simple technology, like winches, then went on to the ship and sailed it–even on the ship, workers had different roles and responsibilities but they lived in close quarters (cf. The factory boarding houses in Lowell in the 1820's) that solidarity was almost inevitable–legislation made “mutiny,” or a strike, a capital offense–captain’s authority was the ultimate in management rights and was enforced by both private authority (ship’s owners) and by the government
For workers, a sense of insecurity developed: illness or injury or lack of work had a devastating effect because the worker had no other resources–in 1756, of the Philadelphia laborers and journeymen who got married
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•20% owned no property at all
•60% had only the bare necessities for setting up a home
Working women–commercialized the household tasks: sewing, laundry, cooking, cleaning and domestic work–economic and social problems of premature widowhood
SUPPLY OF SKILLED LABOR--created elaborate apprenticeship system--usually seven years--sometimes parents were required to pay masters for taking their sons as apprentices---by 1750, England was prohibiting skilled artisans from emigrating--one English politico argued that (1745) that not furnishing the colonies with skilled labor would keep the US from developing manufacturing, thus competing with England--encouraged more slave trading, so that agricultural economy would predominate–all part of the mercantile system
This was a period of individual entrepreneurship, where workers started little workshops, to become “bosses,” although they worked along with the workers–the joint-stock company, which led to larger industrial shops and to the separation of bosses and workers, was not widely employed for financing industrial ventures (Morris, p. 38)