Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)VU

Gender Issues In Psychology PSY512
Table of Contents:
Page no.
Lesson 1 / Introduction……………………………………………………………… / 1
Lesson 2 / Feminist Movement………...……………………..……………………… / 5
Lesson 3 / Historical Background…………………...………………………………. / 8
Lesson 4 / Gender- Related Research……………..………………..………………… / 11
Lesson 5 / Research Methods For Gender Issues………………...…………………... / 17
Lesson 6 / Qualitative Research…………………………...……………………….... / 21
Lesson 7 / Biological Differences Between Genders……...……...…………………... / 25
Lesson 8 / Biological Differences Between Genders: Hormones And Nervous System / 29
Lesson 9 / Theories Of Gender Development…...……………………...…………… / 31
Lesson 10 / Theories Of Gender Development (2)…….……………...………………. / 32
Lesson 11 / Theories Of Gender Development (3)…..……………………...………… / 36
Lesson 12 / Theories Of Gender Development (4)…..………………...……………… / 40
Lesson 13 / Other Approaches………………………….…..………………………. / 42
Lesson 14 / Gender Typing And Stereotyping..…..…………………………………… / 44
Lesson 15 / Gender Stereotypes.………………..…………………………………….. / 48
Lesson 16 / Developmental Stages Of Gender Stereotypes…………………………… / 52
Lesson 17 / Cultural Influence & Gender Roles……………………………………….. / 56
Lesson 18 / Development Of Gender Role Identification……………………………... / 58
Lesson 19 / Gender Differences In Personality...…...………………………………...... / 61
Lesson 20 / Gender Differences In Personality (2)……………………………………. / 63
Lesson 21 / Cognitive Differences……..…………………………………………….. / 65
Lesson 22 / Gender And Media…..……………………….………………………….. / 67
Lesson 23 / Gender And Emotion……….…………………………………………... / 71
Lesson 24 / Gender, Emotion & Motivation……….……….………....……………… / 73
Lesson 25 / Gender And Education ……………………………………..………….. / 75
Lesson 26 / Gender, Work And Women's Empowerment….…………………………. / 77
Lesson 27 / Gender, Work And Women's Empowerment (2)………………………… / 80
Lesson 28 / Gender, Work & Related Issues…………………………………………... / 82
Lesson 29 / Gender And Violence…………………………………………………….. / 85
Lesson 30 / Gender And Health…………………………………………...………….. / 88
Lesson 31 / Gender, Health, And Aging………………………………………..……. / 90
Lesson 32 / Gender, Health, And Aging (2)....…………..……….……………………. / 91
Lesson 33 / Gender Differences In Aging (3)…………………………………………. / 94
Lesson 34 / Gender And Health Promoting Behaviors...……………………………… / 97
Lesson 35 / Gender And Health Promoting Behavior (2)………………………...…… / 100
Lesson 36 / Gender And Heart Disease…………..………………...... ……………… / 104
Lesson 37 / Gender And Cancer….…………………….………………………...…… / 109
Lesson 38 / Gender And HIV/Aids………………….…...…………………………. / 112
Lesson 39 / Problems Associated With Females’ Reproductive Health..………...……... / 116
Lesson 40 / Obesity And Weight Control………………………..……………………. / 120
Lesson 41 / Gender And Psychopathology……………………………………………. / 123
Lesson 42 / Gender And Psychopathology (2)……..…………...…………………….. / 127
Lesson 43 / Gender And Psychotherapy ….…………………………………………... / 131
Lesson 44 / Feminist Therapy………………………….….....………………………... / 134
Lesson 45 / Course Review: New Avenues For Research InGender Issues…………... / 136

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©copyright Virtual University of Pakistan

Gender Issues In Psychology (PSY - 512)VU

Lesson 01

INTRODUCTION

Common misconception:

Gender psychology or psychology of gender issues pertains to only psychology of women. That is not the case. There is a difference between psychology of women and psychology of gender.

Focus of a course in gender issues:

  • What factors are responsible for the distinct masculine and feminine roles?
  • The factors may be biological. Social, cultural, or psychological!

Today we have lots of research evidence available that explains both masculinity, or male roles, and femininity, or female roles.

There are two Divisions of APA that directly deal with these issues:

Division 35: Society for the Psychology of Women, established 1973.

Division 51: Society for the Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity, established 1995.

About this course:

  • This course will have a multi disciplinary approach.
  • We will borrow and benefit from the knowledge and research evidence available in psychology as well as other disciplines.
  • The primary focus of the course will be gender issues. However psychology of women will be touched upon more than issues specific to the psychology of men alone.

Goals of a course in Gender Issues in Psychology:

  • To develop an understanding of the difference between gender and sex.
  • To introduce a new approach to understanding human behavior and mental processes.
  • To give a flavor of the scope and content of study in other popular disciplines of the day, like Gender Studies or Women Studies.
  • To familiarize the students with the impact of socio-cultural and psychological factors on the gender roles and the status of gender in a given society.
  • To bring about a healthier and positive change in the students’ thinking through knowledge of divergent ways of thinking.
  • To develop an understanding of gender relations in the society.
  • To create an awareness of abilities, capacities, psychological make up, and problems of women and research methods employed to study these.
  • To familiarize students with the social and political background of gender differences and the gender issues.

Gender:

The perception of being a male or a female

“Gender” versus “Sex”:

Gender refers to the psychological aspect whereas sex refers to the physiological/ physical aspect of the same phenomenon.

“Gender” refers to culturally constructed categorization of “maleness” and “femaleness” or masculinity and femininity.

Biologically based distinctions between males and females are referred to as “Sex” of the person.

Who makes us behave as males or females?

Human-beings are born as male or female babies, BUT they become masculine or feminine as a result of child rearing practices and socio-cultural variables.

Gender roles:

Expectations of appropriate behavior for males and females set by a society.

Gender role expectations are very similar across societies.

Gender differences:

Actual differences between males and females in terms of average capacity, ability, or typical behavior

Gender stereotypes:

“Widely held beliefs about females ’and male’s abilities, personality traits, and social behavior” (Weiten, 2001)

Some questions to ponder:

•Why are women more conscious about body weight than men?

•Why don’t men wear make up as women do?

•Can men become good “mothers”?

•Why are women not hired as guards?

•Why no men sew clothes at home but most professional tailors are men?

•Why most chefs are men but very few men cook at home?

•Why are women considered talkative whereas on average men talk more?

•The answers to these questions pertain to societal role allocation and shaping.

Feminist Movement:

  • Christine de Pizan: Generally considered the first feminist writer
  • Wrote in the medieval period
  • In the 1700’s women propagated the significance of women’s education
  • Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Marquis de Condorcet
  • 1785: The first scientific Society for Women established in Middle berg, Dutch, and Republic.
  • 1791: “ Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen”
  • The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen” (1789) was paraphrased.
  • It was the French revolution’s central document.
  • 1792: Mary Wollstonecraft: “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”.

The modern feminist movement emerged from the west.

A member of men as well as women contributed to the cause of improving women’s status in the society, in the political, economic, and social spheres.

All societies were patriarchal, male dominated, where women were generally oppressed and home bound.

Women were denied the right to franchise, to go for education, and profession. Woman was treated as a second rate citizen with limited or no ability, little or lower grade intelligence and non trustable skill.

19th century Reform Movement was a landmark in the history of women liberation.

1848: New York: The first Women’s Rights Convention

J .S. Mill wrote “The Subjection of Women” in the mid 1800s. He was influenced by his wife Harriet Taylor.

Emmeline Pankhurst formed WSPU/Women’s Social & Political Union.

  • Emma Goldman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dame Ethel Mary Smyth, and Margaret Sanger were among the 19th century feminists.
  • In the East Qasim Amin an Egyptian jurist is known as the Father of Egyptian feminist movement.
  • In 1899 he wrote “ Women’s Liberation” and proved to be a very influential writer (Tahrir ul Mar’a)
  • Woman suffrage movement & its ultimate success brought about major changes in terms of women’s status as well as their self- perceptions and vision.
  • The First World War was also a turning point.
  • Many women who never worked outside home started working.
  • But the end of war meant joblessness for many women. In piece time, the jobs were to be left for the soldiers returning home.
  • Still many women carried on with nursing, farming, blue collared jobs & other traditional occupations.
  • At the same time during the world war many women entered occupations that used to be restricted to men alone e.g. mechanical work.
  • In many communist & socialist countries women were bought at par with men in many regards.
  • Feminist movement saw tough times and discouragement in countries like Germany or Italy, in the early 20th country.

Waves Of The Feminist Movement:

First wave feminists:

The early feminists, who initiated the movement

Second wave feminists:

By this time, women in most countries had been granted the right to franchise and to contest election for public office. These feminists were active after 1960.They were working for equality, both economic and social. They fought for the right to contraception, birth control and sexual liberation. Sexual liberation became a much debated issue and was criticized by many feminists.

Third wave feminists:

Third wave movement emerged in the 1990’s.The earlier feminists failed to see and deal with variations within women. Third wave feminists try to see how different groups of women may be having different needs, and circumstances, and requiring different solutions. Womanism, Queer theory, and Post Modern Feminism are a part of this wave.

Lesson 02

FEMINIST MOVEMENT

A movement or way of thinking that proposes, advocates, supports, and struggles for social equality of the two sexes. The difference between men and women should be looked into from a “gender” perspective rather than a “sexist” perspective. The difference between the sexes is learned and attained, not ascribed or inherent. Society is the seed bed of our gender roles, gender Identity, and gender stratification leading to social status and ranking of the genders.

Feminist movement had its roots in struggle for enlightenment, women’s rights, and legal and political rights.

The feminists advocate:

a)The significance of change.

b)Reintegration of humanity: all human traits are found in all humans (French, 1985).

c)Equal rights and elimination of gender stratification.

d)Curbing and bringing to an end all forms of violence against women.

e)Promoting sexual autonomy.

Forms or Varieties of Feminism

Liberal Feminism :( 1960s- 1970s)

Liberal feminism had roots in classic liberal thought; women should have the same rights as men.

Radical Feminism:

•Cultural notion of gender needs to be eliminated.

•Men are the oppressors and women oppressed.

•Racial or social class oppression follows the same model.

•

Socialist Feminism:

Rather than seeking liberation at individual level, men and women should be together in this pursuit.

Cultural Feminism:

  • Social change is a must.
  • Societies need to accept and appreciate traditionally feminine values.

Some important historical facts and events:

  • Christine de Pizan: Generally considered the first feminist writer. Wrote in the medieval period.
  • In the 1700’s women like Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Marquis de Condorcet propagated the significance of women’s education
  • 1785: The first scientific Society for Women established in Middleberg, Dutch, Republic.
  • 1791: “Declaration of the Rights of Women & the Female Citizen”
  • The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789) was paraphrased. It was the French revolution’s central document.
  • 1792: Mary Wollstonecraft wrote her famous book: “A Vindication of the Rights of Woman”.
  • The modern feminist movement emerged from the west.
  • A member of men as well as women contributed to the cause of improving women’s status in the society, in the political, economic, & social spheres.
  • All societies were patriarchal, male dominated, where women were generally oppressed & home bound.
  • Women were denied the right to franchise, to go for education, and profession.
  • Woman was treated as a second rate citizen with limited or no ability, little or lower grade intelligence & non trustable skill.
  • 19th century Reform Movement was a landmark in the history of women liberation
  • 1848: New York: The first Women’s Rights Convention was held.
  • J .S. Mill wrote “The Subjection of Women” in the mid 1800s. He was influenced by his wife Harriet Taylor.
  • Emmeline Pankhurst formed WSPU/Women’s Social and Political Union.
  • Emma Goldman, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Dame Ethel Mary Smyth, & Margaret Sanger were among the 19th century feminists.
  • In the East Qasim Amin an Egyptian jurist is known as the Father of Egyptian feminist movement.
  • In 1899 he wrote “ Women’s Liberation” and proved to be a very influential writer

(Tahrir u Mar’a)

  • Woman suffrage movement & its ultimate success brought about major changes in terms of women’s status as well as their self- perceptions and vision.

The First World War was also a turning point. Many women who never worked outside home started working. But the end of war meant joblessness for many women. In piece time, the jobs were to be left for the soldiers returning home. Still many women carried on with nursing, farming, blue collared jobs & other traditional occupations. At the same time during the world war many women entered occupations that used to be restricted to men alone e.g. mechanical work.

In many communist & socialist countries women were bought at par with men in many regards.

Feminist movement saw tough times & discouragement in countries like Germany or Italy, in the early 20th country.

Waves of the Feminist Movement:

First wave feminists

The early feminists, who initiated the movement

Second wave feminists

By this time, women in most countries had been granted the right to franchise and to contest election for public office. These feminists were active after 1960. They were working for equality, both economic and social. They fought for the right to contraception, birth control and sexual liberation. Sexual liberation became a much debated issue and was criticized by many feminists.

Third wave feminists:

Emerged in the 1990’s. The earlier feminists failed to see and deal with variations within women. Third wave feminists try to see how different groups of women may be having different needs, and circumstances, and requiring different solutions. Womanism, Queer theory, and Post Modern Feminism are a part of this wave.

Women’s Movement in the Sub-continent:

  • Began in the 1920s
  • AIWC: Established in 1927: All India Women’s Conference was the flag bearer
  • The Women’s Indian Association and the National Council for Women led to the developmental of AIWC
  • The initial agenda was females’ education
  • The fullest developmental of an individual’s latent capacities along with the ideals of motherhood was emphasized.
  • Later on social transformation was also included in their agenda.

Women’s Suffrage:

It was a reform movement for attaining the goal of suffrage to women .The movement had political and social aims to achieve.

Suffragists:Supporters and leaders of the suffrage movement, any person, male or female, who supported suffrage for women.

Suffragettes: Female supporters of the movement.

Initially equal rather than universal suffrage was the demand.

Equal suffrage: Supporting the cause of abolishing the tradition and practice of graded votes.

Universal suffrage: Right to vote without any discrimination. In many countries and parts of world, women’s suffrage was granted much before universal suffrage; so women in these parts of the world had the right to vote before the men and women of some other races in various parts of the world.

History of Women Suffrage:

Women got the suffrage right at different times in different parts of the world.

  • 1776: New Jersey: first women suffrage & people were called, people, not men.It was rescinded in 1807.
  • 1838:The PitcairnIslands: Women were allowed suffrage. In South Australia, restricted women’s suffrage was allowed.
  • 1871:The Paris Commune allowed the right that was later cancelled.
  • 1944:President de Gaulle reinstated the right.
  • 1893:New Zealand: Voting rights were given to women.
  • 1894:South Australia: Women were given universal suffrage and granted permission to stand for parliament.
  • 1906:Finland: Women got universal and equal suffrage, and allowed to be candidates in election. Finland was the first European country to do so.
  • 1907:Finland: The world’s first female Member of Parliament. Finland had 19 women members of parliament after the election.
  • 1913:NorwayDenmark: women got the right to vote. Remaining Australian state followed these countries.
  • 1917:Soviet Union and Canada (except Quebec that allowed women suffrage in 1940) permitted suffrage.
  • 1918All German and Polish women and British women above 30 years of age got the right.
  • 1920:American states where women previously did not have the right could now vote.
  • 1928:All British women were granted suffrage
  • 1926:Tthe year of women suffrage in Turkey.
  • 1984:Liechtenstein: In central Europe, one of the smallest independent states in the world was one of the last places to allow equal suffrage to women.

Today few countries exist where women do not have the right to franchise.

In Bhutan, one vote one property is the rule, which makes women suffrage difficult.

Lesson 03

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Two main viewpoints exist in psychology regarding gender differences:

1. Gender variation is biological and evolution-based in nature…..hence fixed and un alterable. Biological differences are there, BUT it is the society that shapes and nurtures gender roles. The biological approach has roots in evolutionary psychology and has an essentialist nature.

2. The biosocial approach has a broader perspective and benefits from knowledge and research in Sociology, Anthropology, Ethnology, and off course Biology.

The main issues are tackled in these theories:

Who made us what we are? Were we born like that or are we a product of the environment and the society that we exist in?

Nature versus Nurture

There is no denying the fact that men and women are biologically different, but are the roles adopted by us also predetermined? Or, is it that we are made to learn roles that that suit our biological make-up?

We know that men are higher in physical strength and women in endurance and that may explain many of the roles that we play in life.

Minimalist and Maximalist views in Psychology:

Epstein, 1988 describes the two opposing viewpoints as minimalist and maximalist.

Maximalists believe in huge, fundamental, differences between men and women. A number of maximalists belong to the essentialist perspective.