– Alpha cells
• • Make glucagon
• • Blood glucose--promotes glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis
– – Beta cells
• • Make insulin
• • ¯ Blood glucose - glucose uptake, especially by skeletal muscle, and uptake of unit molecules generally
• • More beta cells than alpha or delta
Ovaries
• • Make estrogens + progesterone
– – Promotes development of secondary sex characteristics
– – Regulates menstrual cycle, pregnancy, lactation
Testes
• • Make testosterone
– – Promotes development of secondary sex characteristics and sperm production
1. Summarize invertebrate signaling systems.
2. Summarize vertebrate endocrine systems.
3. Differentiate between types of hormones.
4. Match endocrine glands and specific cells with hormones produced and hormone with their effects.
5. Differentiate between types of reproduction.
6. Differentiate between types of fertilization.
7. Identify hormones regulating reproduction.
8. Identify anatomical structures used for spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
9. Identify functions of male and female reproductive structures.
10. Identify processes of the menstrual cycle.
11. Characterize fertilization.
12. Identify functions of embryonic membranes.
13. Summarize labor and parturition.
14. Summarize control of lactation.
15. Match stages of early animal development with processes occurring.
16. Match stages of later human development with processing occurring.
17. Differentiate between the central and peripheral nervous system branches and between the somatic and autonomic nervous system branches.
18. Identify functions of nervous system cell types.
19. Differentiate between roles of parts of a neuron.
20. Identify the role of myelination.
21. Differentiate between functional classifications of neurons.
22. Characterize the neuron membrane potential at rest.
23. Identify steps in the propagation of neuron action potentials.
24. Identify characteristics and processes in synaptic transmission.
25. Differentiate between acetylcholine and norepinephrine.
26. Identify mechanisms of grading response to stimuli.
27. Characterize neuron refractory periods.
28. Identify processes involved with learning.
29. Summarize evolutionary trends in nervous systems.
30. Match portions of the vertebrate brain with their functions.
31. Summarize sensory reception and perception.
32. Differentiate between types of sensory receptors.
33. Differentiate between types of eyes and eyecups.
34. Match the anatomical structures of eyes with their functions.
35. Identify signal transduction mechanisms and anatomical structures involved in vision.
36. Match the anatomic structures of ears and other sound-detecting structures with their hearing functions.
37. Identify adaptations used for equilibrium sensing used by different animals.
38. Identify structures used for specialized chemoreception (taste and smell) in vertebrates.
39. Identify forces to be overcome to produce animal movement.
40. Identify cellular mechanisms of locomotion.
41. Differentiate between different types of skeletons.
42. Identify anatomical components of skeletal muscle.
43. Define “motor unit.”
44. Identify the functional unit of skeletal muscle.
45. Identify events at the neuromuscular junction stimulating muscle contraction/
46. Characterize the skeletal muscle action potential.
47. Identify descriptions of muscle tone, summation, tetanus, and the staircase effect.
48. Differentiate between types of muscle fibers.
49. Identify processes used in cardiac and smooth muscle contraction.
Unit 4A Animal Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
• • Most common in invertebrates
• • Fission
– – Division of parent into two equal sized individuals
• • Budding
– – New individuals grow out of adult, eventually detaching or remaining attached
• • Fragmentation and regeneration
– – Broken body parts develop into complete individuals
– – Lost body parts regenerate
Sexual Reproduction
• • Gonads - testes & ovaries ® gametes - spermatozoa + ova
• • Fusion of haploid gametes ® diploid zygotes
Parthenogenesis
• • Two types of egg may be produced
– – One is fertilized ® shelled egg
• • Egg is often resistant to environmental stress (e.g. winter)
– – Other is unfertilized
• • Egg is vulnerable to environmental stress
• • Animal develops without fertilization and produces haploid eggs by mitosis
• • Hormones control behavior in some lizard species, even if only parthenogenesis serves them for reproduction
Hermaphroditism
• • Both male and female reproductive organs are found in one individual
– – Common in parasites
– – Usually two individuals mate, each serving as the male for the other
Fertilization
• • External
– – Gametes shed into environment: eggs first, sperm later
• • Pheromones released by the female may enhance fertilization success
– – Large numbers of eggs are produced
• • Parental care increases success
• • Internal
– – ¯ numbers but care promotes success
– – Insects
• • Female spermatheca stores sperm for fertilization for years
– – Vertebrates
• • Very ¯ numbers, all anatomy and physiology are similar to humans
Hormonal Regulation
• • Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) + Luteinizing Hormone (LH) secreted by Anterior pituitary- controlled by Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone made by hypothalamus
• • Gonadal hormones - negative feedback
• • Secretion of FSH + LH at sexual maturity (puberty)
– – may be due to ¯ sensitivity to negative feedback to gonadal hormones, may be due to pineal gland melatonin
Male Reproductive System
• • Hormones
– – LH - negative feedback by Testosterone - Testes
– – FSH - negative feedback by inhibin - Testes
– – Testosterone - constant release by testes interstitial endocrinocytes
• • stimulated by LH
• • promotes growth of muscle and bone (before epiphyseal plates fuse)
• • permits sperm development (no sperm development if testosterone is low in the testes)
– – seminiferous tubules
• • convert testosterone to other androgens
– – MaleHormones
• • Anatomy
– – Testes descend from abdominal cavity 1.5 months before birth; provides temperature cooler than body, required for spermatogenesis
– – Lobules - 200-300/testicle, contain seminiferous tubules® spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis
spermatogonium (2N)
¯
primary spermocyte (2N)(1)
¯ Meiosis I
Secondary spermocyte (1N) (2)
¯ Meiosis II
spermatids (1N)(4)
¯ development
spermatozoans (1N)(4)
• • development: from basement membrane in tubules - spermatogonia ®®®lumen - spermatozoans released
• • spermatogenesis
• • Sertoli cells surround developing sperm, provide blood - testes barrier so man doesn't recognize sperm as foreign and make antibodies
• • Route to outside: seminiferous tubules ® epididymis ® vas deferens ® ejaculatory duct ® urethra
• • Seminal vesicles - provide fructose for sperm, prostaglandins, alkaline (neutralizes acidic vagina)
• • Prostate gland - inferior to bladder provides citrate (for Kreb’s cycle), acid phosphatase, proteolytic enzymes (including prostate specific antigen-PSA)--aids in motility + viability
• • Bulbourethral gland (Cowper's) - pH adjustment
Penis
• • erectile tissues:
– – 2 corpora cavernosa penis (dorso lateral)
– – 1 corpus spongiosum penis (mid-ventral)
– – filled with blood sinuses
– – penile_erection
• • sex: arteries dilate ® fill sinuses ® collapses vein during ejaculation
– – sympathetic input closes the smooth muscle sphincter at base of urinary bladder
– – contractions & peristalsis ® approximately 100 million sperm released (approximately 20 million required for fertility)
Female Reproductive System
• • Ovaries
– – Contain ovarian follicles (developing ova)
– – Vesicular follicles - contain maturing ovum, fluid-filled, secrete female sex hormones
– – Corpus luteum - follicle after ovum is discharged (ovulation), makes hormones
Oogenesis
• • Primary oocytes stalled at Prophase I near end of gestation: ® Max # at birth ® rest meiosis monthly after puberty
• • ® Secondary oocyte with Secondary follicles - polar bodies form ®
• • size of egg - oocyte contained within Secondary follicles:
• • granulosa cells form corona radials around ovum
• • one secondary follicle matures ® Graafian follicle – ovulates
• • D:\animal biology\reproduction and development\oogenesis.rm
Ovulation
• • This corresponds with a spike in LH & FSH secretion caused by excretion by follicle; other secondary follicles regresses
• • Ovulation is the bursting of the Graafian follicle, the secondary oocyte is extruded from ovary, remaining follicle becomes corpus luteum. Stimulated by LH.
• • corpus luteum secretes estrogen & progesterone both promote thickening of the endometrium in the uterus for implantation of a fertilized egg
• • corpus luteum regresses possibly because LH is low due to luteal estrogen and progesterone secretion ®
• • corpus albicans: ¯ estrogen and progesterone secretion ®
– – D:\animal biology\reproduction and development\2female_reproductive_system.mov
• • menstruation: shedding of the stratum functionalis (inner layer) of the endometrium
– – D:\animal biology\reproduction and development\menstruation.rm
Fertilization
• • ovum released from the ovary at ovulation ® fallopian tube, fertilization occurs here
• • head of the sperm is capped with an acrosome that brings enzymes required to penetrate the layers of cells surrounding the ovum
• • as one sperm penetrates ovum, changes in these layers prohibit the entry of any more sperm
• • trigger for the ovum to complete meiosis II
• • the sperm pronuclei waits and fuses with the ovum nucleus
Uterine (Fallopian) tubes (oviducts)
• • ovum ® infundibulum (funnel shaped opening) ® ampulla (wider longer) ® isthmus (narrow, shorter connection to uterus)
• • fertilization usually occurs in the ampulla
• • ciliated epithelial cells sweep it to the uterus, it is then a "blastocyst“
Uterus
• • perimetrium - outer layer (peritoneum)
• • myometrium - smooth muscle (contracts with labor)
• • endometrium - columnar epithelium cells, endometrial glands + stroma (CT)
– – stratum functionalis - shed in menstruation - blastocyst implanted here
– – stratum basalis - produces new stratum functionalis monthly
Vagina
• • path of menstrual flow, receptacle for penis, birth canal
• • mucosa - stratified squamous epithelium, connective tissue, muscularis layer - smooth muscle
Embryonic Membranes
• • yolk sac – endoderm-lined membrane ® supplies early nutrition, site of blood cell formation
• • amnion – covers embryo + later encloses amniotic fluid (bag of waters)
• • chorion - surrounds embryo (+ fetus) ® placenta
• • allantois - vascular membrane ® umbilical cord
Placenta + Umbilical cord
• • placenta formed by chorion of embryo + endometrium of mother’s modified decidua basalis layer
• • the stratum functionalis is present too
• • chorionic villi project into the decidua basalis, bathed in maternal blood sinuses "intervillous spaces" ® maternal blood
Placental Secretions
• • chorionic somatotropin - stimulates mammary gland development
• • chorionic gonadotropin - acts like LH & FSH to maintain endometrium
• • Estriol - maintains endometrium, stimulates mammary gland development
Labor & parturition
• • uterus: #'s of oxytocin receptors during gestation ( sensitivity)
• • posterior pituitary releases oxytocin, with uterine sensitivity the oxytocin induces prostaglandin synthesis which stimulates uterine contraction
• • Contractions stimulate the posterior pituitary to secrete more oxytocin - positive feedback ®® labor
Labor
• • preceded by: effacement - thinning of cervix mucus plug
• • stage one - onset of regular uterine contractions & dilation of cervix 7-10 cm
• • stage two - baby proceeds to move through cervix and baby is delivered
• • stage three - the placenta is delivered
Lactation
• • prolactin - stimulates milk synthesis
• • Oxytocin - stimulates milk letdown
• • (both in response to infant suckling)
• • oxytocin also stimulates uterine contraction, so nursing helps mom to regain uterine muscle tone
Unit 4 Animal Development
Early Development “Zygote”
• • Fertilization
– – Egg + sperm pronuclei (humans: 23 chromosomes each, 1N)
– – Fusion ® nucleus (humans: 23 pairs of chromosomes, 2N)
• • Acrosomal reaction
– – Acrosome of sperm releases hydrolytic enzymes to fuse egg and sperm plasma membranes, releasing the sperm nucleus to the egg’s interior
• • Cortical reaction
– – After sperm nucleus is in the egg, a sperm-proof vitelline layer is formed
• • Cleavage
– – mitotic divisions without cell growth
– – ® more cells without in size of zygote (cells get smaller)
– – ® ball of 32-64 cells "morula"
• • Blastulation
– – becomes hollow blastocyst
– – the inner cell mass ® fetus
– – the surrounding chorion (trophoblast cells) becomes part of the placenta
– – human_development
– – implantation - 6 days after fertilization, inner cell mass side to the endometrium
– – O2, Nutrients, & wastes are exchanged between placenta & endometrium blood by diffusion
• • Gastrulation
– – development of primary germ cell layers
– – 1st ectoderm + endoderm, later mesoderm ® embryonic coelom
– – SeaUrchinTimeLapse
• • Later Development
– – Fetal growth & development - stepwise process from germ cell layer
– – development = "embryology"
– – embryonic phase - 1st 8 weeks - development of most major organs
– – XenopusDevelop
– – human_embryonic_development
– – fetus - 8 weeks - 7-8 cm long looks human ® development until birth
Unit 4C Nervous Systems
Nervous Tissue Organization
• • Central Nervous System (CNS)
– – Brain and spinal cord
– – Integration of information
• • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
– – All but the brain and spinal cord
– – Collects information and receives commands from CNS
Central Nervous System
brain + spinal cord
¯
Afferent: Efferent:
Sensory Motor
Neurons Neurons
Peripheral Nervous System
Motor Neurons of CNS
¯ ¯
Somatic NS Autonomic NS
¯ ¯
Skeletal muscles smooth + cardiac muscle + glands
Autonomic Nervous System
• • Sympathetic NS Parasympathetic NS
– – either ¯ or organ activity
– – depends on organ
Nervous System Cells
• • Neuroglia
– – protection & support
– – # cells than neurons
– – Schwann cells (PNS) and oligodendrocytes (CNS)
• • form myelin sheath
– – Astrocytes – form the blood-brain barrier
• • Neurons
– – Send and receive stimuli
– – Cells often quite long and thin