MARATHON
Persian-Greek Wars, 490 B.C.
The battle on the plains of Marathon in 490 8.C. ended a major Persian invasion of Europe and established the Greeks as a dominant military force. It also provided the unification that would eventually lead to the emergence of Greece as the propagator of Western civilization.
In 556 8.C., Cyrus succeeded his father as the ruler of the Persian district of Anshan, which was under the control of the Medians. Shortly thereafter, Cyrus, soon to be known as "the Great," led a three-year revolt in which he defeated the Medians and incorporated them into his army so he could take even more territory. By the time of his death in battle twenty-five years later, Cyrus had expanded his Persian Empire from the eastern IndusRiver border with India to the Aral, Caspian, Black, and MediterraneanSeas.
Included in the Empire was the west coast of Asia Minor, known as Ionia, which was inhibited by Greek colonists. Some of these colonists rebelled briefly in 512 8.C. and then more substantially in 499 8.C. In the latter rebellion, the Ionian Greeks requested assistance from the city-states in Greece. Athens responded with a fleet of twenty warships, and the city of Eritrea-on the island of Euboea-provided five more. Despite the assistance from the Greek city-states, the Ionian rebellion was quickly defeated, and Darius, the Persian leader, swore vengeance against the Greek cities for their assistance in the rebellion.
In 492 B.C., Darius conquered the kingdoms of Thrace and Macedonia on the northern Greek border. Before he could attack south, however, a storm damaged his fleet. Two years later (some accounts say only one year), the Persians returned and quickly captured and burned Eritrea. The Persian force of about 20,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry then landed on the Greek mainland at the Plain of Marathon, about twenty-six miles northeast of Athens. The Persians hoped to intercept the Greeks reinforcing Eritrea while also waiting for the remainder of their army and navy to join them.
Athens responded with an army of 10,000 supported by 1,000 thousand soldiers from the city of Plataea. The Athenian commander dispatched a runner to Sparta requesting reinforcements. The young soldier, Pheilippides (or Pheidippides), reportedly ran the 150 miles in two days, only to be told that the Spartans could not the fight, in accordance with their religious beliefs, until after the next full moon. Pheilippides took only two more days to return to Marathon with the message.
For nine days, the Greeks and Persians stood in long lines across the two-milewide plain, neither side willing to attack and lose the advantage of the defense. The Greeks were waiting for the Spartans while the Persians were waiting for the remainder of their army from Eritrea.
On a morning in mid-September, the Greek commander noticed that the Persian cavalry was no longer on the plain. Some accounts speculate that the horsemen were on reconnaissance toward Athens, while others suggest that they may have gone for fresh water. Whatever the reason, the Persian cavalry was absent, and the Greek infantry took advantage.
Greek commander Miltiades ordered his men forward, first at a walk and then at a trot when they came within range of the Persian archers. The Greeks, armed with swords, spears, and shields, first struck the Persian flanks, moving them backward until the attackers began to envelop the center. Miltiades ordered more men against the Persian flanks, which forced the center into a hasty withdrawal toward the beach. The Greeks killed many of the retreating Persians and even captured seven of the Persian ships as they attempted to rescue their retreating army.
By the end of the day, more than 6,000 Persian bodies littered the Marathon plain. Greek losses totaled only 192 men. Two small Greek cities had defeated the great Persian Empire. When the Spartans finally arrived, shortly after the battle concluded, they could only admire the work of their fellow Greeks.
However, there was little time for celebration. Miltiades knew the surviving Persians and their reinforcements would set sail for undefended Athens. The Athenians immediately began a forced march for their home city. They arrived only hours before the Persians, who, when they found the same army waiting that had soundly defeated them at Marathon, turned their ships toward Persia.
Marathon, through the writings of Greek historian Herodotus and others, quickly became celebrated as history's first great decisive battle. Stories about the fight survive as fact and influence even today's classical scholars and events. For example, the story of the soldier's run of more than twenty-six miles to Athens to report the victory lives on in the Olympic race known as the marathon.
Marathon became a symbol for great feats. It was decisive at the time; however, it was not as influential as the battle at Salamis ten years later that ended Persian influence in Greece for good. Still, Marathon did provide a significant turning point in stopping the invasion of the west from the east. It was the first great victory by Europe over Asia, and from the seeds sown on the plain of Marathon grew the future of Greek and Western civilizations.