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THE ROLE OF MATTERING TO NONTRADITIONAL FATHERS IN ADOLESCENT MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
by
Clorinda Eileen Schenck
A Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements of the Degree
Master of Arts
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
August 2006
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THE ROLE OF MATTERING TO NONTRADITIONAL FATHERS IN ADOLESCMENT MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS
by
Clorinda Eileen Schenck
has been approved
June 2006
APPROVED:
, Co-Chair
, Co-Chair
Supervisory Committee
ACCEPTED:
Department Chair
Dean, Division of Graduate Studies
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ABSTRACT
This study examined the main and interactive effects of children’s perceptions of how much they matter to or are important to their nonresidential biological fathers and stepfathers on children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. The sample included 133 Anglo-American and Mexican-American children, aged 11 to 14, living in stepfather families and their mothers, stepfathers and teachers. Children reported on mattering; children, mothers, stepfathers, and teachers reported on children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Results indicated that mattering to the nonresidential biological father was significantly related to internalizing problems, as measured by mother, teacher, and child report. Mattering to the stepfather was significantly related to internalizing problems as measured by child report. Significant main effects of mattering to the stepfather occurred for stepfather and child report of externalizing problems. For teacher report of externalizing problems, the relation between mattering to the stepfather and externalizing problems was moderated by mattering to the nonresidential biological father, such that mattering to the stepfather was more strongly related to externalizing problems at low levels of mattering to the nonresidential biological father than at high levels of mattering to the nonresidential biological father. These findings suggest that mattering is an important aspect of the father-child relationship in relation to mental health problems, and highlight the importance of considering children’s relationships with both their nonresidential and residential fathers. Implications of the findings for the broader understanding of mental health problems of children in stepfamilies and the development of interventions for this at-risk population are discussed.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my advisor, Sharlene Wolchik, for her gentle guidance, endless patience, and constant support through every stage of this project. I also thank Sanford Braver for his thoughtful advice and continual support of my intellectual and professional development. I would like to thank Linda Luecken for her insightful comments and suggestions that helped guide the development of this document. Thank you also to my friends for their unwavering support, and for bringing balance, joy, and adventure to my graduate student life. Finally, thank you to my parents for encouraging all my aspirations, and for always letting me know how much I matter.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
INTRODUCTION 1
METHODS 12
Sample 12
Inclusion Criteria 13
Recruitment 13
Arizona State University 13
University of California, Riverside 15
Sample Characteristics 17
Procedure 18
Measures 18
Covariates 18
Predictors 18
Mattering. 18
Outcome Variables 19
Internalizing Problems. 19
Externalizing Problems. 21
RESULTS 21
Descriptives 21
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Page
Covariates 22
Regression Models 23
DISCUSSION 25
REFERENCES 44
APPENDIX
MEASURES 55
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Means, Standard Deviations, Possible and Actual Range for Study Variables…...36
2. Correlations of Internalizing and Externalizing Problems Within and Across Reporter……………………….………………………………………………...37
3. Correlations of Covariates and Internalizing and Externalizing Problems………..38
4. Correlations of Covariates and Mattering…………………………………………39
5. Hierarchical Regressions of Internalizing Problems on Covariates, Mattering to Mothers, Mattering to Stepfathers, Mattering to Nonresidential Fathers, and the Mattering to Stepfather x Mattering to Nonresidential Father
Interaction Term………………………………………………………………...40
6. Hierarchical Regressions of Externalizing Problems on Covariates, Mattering to Mothers, Mattering to Stepfathers, Mattering to Nonresidential Fathers, and the Mattering to Stepfather x Mattering to Nonresidential Father
Interaction Term………………………………………………………………...41
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Hypothesized Interaction between Mattering to Nonresidential Father and………42
Mattering to Stepfather on Children’s Internalizing and Externalizing
Problems
2. Relation between Mattering to Stepfather and Teacher Report of Externalizing Problems at High, Mean, and Low Values of Mattering to Nonresidential
Father……………………………………………………………………………43
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Introduction
In the twentieth century, the predominant conceptualization of the father was that of an instrumental or breadwinning role (Cabrera, Tamis-LeMonda, Bradley, Hofferth, & Lamb, 2000; LaRossa, 1997). However, societal changes emerging over recent decades along with increasing involvement of fathers in their children’s lives is forcing the reshaping of our understanding of fathers in general, and more specifically the role of the father-child relationship in child development and functioning (Cabrera et al., 2000). Scholarly work on fatherhood and child-outcomes has burgeoned over the past 15 years, generally concluding that positive father involvement is beneficial to children (Marsiglio Amato, Day, & Lamb, 2000).
Although there has been rapid growth in the exploration of the contribution of fathers, the majority of this work has focused on the traditional, residential biological father (Dunn, 2004). Comparatively little work has been done addressing the contribution of nontraditional fathers such as nonresidential biological fathers, or “nonresidential fathers,” and stepfathers (Cabrera et al., 2000; White & Gilbreth, 2001). Recent increases in rates of divorce, nonmarital childbearing, and cohabitation (Bumpass & Raley, 1995; National Center for Health Statistics, 1993; Seltzer 1994; Sweet & Bumpass, 1987) however, argue for the importance of further examination of the contribution of these less traditional, but increasingly prevalent fathers.
In the literature on nonresidential fathers, one of the most consistent predictors of positive mental health outcomes for children has been the father’s economic support (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999; Dunn, 2004; Furstenberg & Cherlin, 1991; Furstenberg, Morgan, & Allison, 1987; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994; Seltzer, 1994). Beyond financial contributions, researchers have examined other aspects of the nonresidential
father-child relationship, such as father-child contact and emotional quality of the relationship. Amato (1993) summarized 32 studies investigating the relation between nonresidential father-child contact and child functioning, and found very mixed results. Fifteen of the studies (47%) found contact to be significantly and positively related to child functioning; ten (31%) found no significant relation; and seven (22%) found contact to be significantly and negatively related to child functioning.
Studies investigating emotional quality or closeness and its link to child functioning have also shown somewhat mixed results. Furstenberg et al. (1987) found no consistent relation between closeness of the nonresidential father-child relationship and measures of child functioning such as delinquency, problem behaviors, distress, and academic difficulty, while Bray and Berger (1990) found some support for a positive association between nonresidential father-child closeness and child behavioral adjustment, though results varied by gender of the child and length of the mother’s remarriage. Additionally, Brody and Forehand (1990) demonstrated that having a close relationship with the nonresidential father buffered the child against the negative effects of interparental conflict. In their meta-analysis of fourteen studies, Amato and Gilbreth (1999) tentatively concluded that feeling close to the nonresidential father is weakly but positively associated with children’s academic achievement and negatively associated with internalizing and externalizing problems.
Additional empirical work has explored other aspects of nonresidential father parenting behaviors. Results reveal that while nonresidential fathers’ participation in leisure, recreational, or “friend-like” activities with their children is not significantly
related to child functioning (i.e., emotional distress, delinquent behaviors, academic achievement), engagement in daily activities more typical of traditional parent-child relationships (e.g., helping with homework, eating meals together in the home, grocery shopping) is positively related to child functioning (Clarke-Stewart & Hayward, 1996; Stewart, 2003). Authoritative parenting by the nonresidential father has also been demonstrated to be negatively related to child externalizing problems (Simons, Whitbeck, Beaman, & Conger, 1994) and advice giving and support is negatively correlated with child depression (Barber, 1994). In their meta-analysis of fourteen studies, Amato and Gilbreth (1999) also concluded that nonresidential fathers’ participation in behaviors typical of authoritative parenting was related to better academic achievement and fewer internalizing and externalizing problems in their children. In fact, of the four dimensions examined in their analysis (payment of child support, father-child contact, feelings of closeness, and authoritative parenting), authoritative parenting was the most consistent predictor of child outcomes. It is important to note, however, that the literature examining the contributions of specific aspects of parenting behaviors as well as closeness or emotional quality of the nonresidential-father child relationship remains small and merits further, more comprehensive examination (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999; Arditti, 1995; Stewart, 2003).
Similar to the work on nonresidential fathers, research on the links between the quality of the stepfather-child relationship and child mental health problems is limited. The majority of studies exploring the influence of stepfathers on child mental health problems has focused on family structure variables such as the presence or absence of a
stepfather rather than on stepfather roles, behaviors or the quality of the stepfather-child relationship (Bronstein, Stoll, Clauson, Abrams, & Briones, 1994). Some of this work has shown that children raised in stepfather families show no advantage over children raised in single-parent families in terms of a range of child functioning variables (Furstenberg & Cherlin, 1991; McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994; Zill, 1988) while others have shown that the presence of a stepfather may buffer some of the negative effects of parental separation and divorce (Bronstein, Clauson, Stoll, & Abrams, 1993; Chapman, 1977; Oshman & Manosevitz, 1976; Santrock, 1972).
The studies that have more directly explored aspects of the stepfather-child relationship and child functioning, however, have yielded more consistent results. Although some work investigating the role of overall relationship quality (Fine, Voyandoff, & Donnelly, 1993) or stepfather acceptance and positive involvement (Clingempeel & Segal, 1986) has revealed no significant relation between stepfather-child relationship and child functioning, the majority of work examining aspects of the stepfather-child relationship such as authoritative parenting has found that stepfathers make a positive contribution. For example, Andersen, Lindner, and Bennion (1992) found authoritative parenting to be associated with fewer externalizing problems and higher scholastic competence for boys and girls, while Hetherington (1988) found support for links between stepfather authoritative parenting and fewer behavior problems for stepsons only. Crosbie-Burnett and Giles-Sims (1994) found support from stepfathers to be positively related to child functioning regardless of sex of the child. Fine et al. demonstrated that stepfather warmth was significantly associated with children’s better psychological adjustment, higher quality of life, and fewer behavior problems, while control by the stepfather was linked with better psychological adjustment. Additionally, Bronstein et al. (1994) found a positive relation between children’s perceptions of their stepfathers as approving, supportive, and interested in them, and higher self-concept, better classroom behavior, and fewer mental health problems.
Despite the fact that an estimated one third of all children will experience either a married or cohabitating stepfamily before they reach age 18 (Bumpass, Raley, & Sweet, 1995), and approximately two thirds of those will also have a living nonresidential father (White & Gilbreth, 2001), few studies have examined the potential influence of the quality of relationship with both fathers on child functioning (Berg, 2003; White & Gilbreth, 2001). In one of the first such studies, White and Gilbreth explored the unique contributions of the quality of the nonresidential father-child relationship and the quality of the stepfather-child relationship to internalizing and externalizing problems in a sample of adolescents from married and cohabitating stepfather families. Using adolescent report of the quality of the parent-child relationship for each of the three target parents (mother, stepfather, and nonresidential father), and either mother or stepfather report of internalizing and externalizing problems, they found that the quality of the mother-child and stepfather-child relationship both contributed significantly to the child’s internalizing and externalizing problems when tested separately. When tested simultaneously, both relationships also contributed significantly to the child’s internalizing problems. The quality of the nonresidential father-child relationship, however, had no significant association with child internalizing or externalizing problems in any multivariate analysis. It is important to note, however, that the measure of the nonresidential father-child relationship differed from the measure used for both the mother and stepfather, complicating interpretation of the findings.
More recently, Berg (2003) examined the unique contribution of perceived closeness to each of the three parents to the child’s self-esteem in a sample of adolescents from married stepfather families. Both perceived closeness and self-esteem were measured using child self-report. In contrast to the findings of White and Gilbreth (2001), Berg found that the child’s perceived closeness to the mother, nonresidential father, and stepfather all contributed uniquely to self-esteem, with mothers accounting for the most variance, stepfathers the next most, and nonresidential fathers the least. These contrasting results may be attributable to a range of factors including differences in measurement of the parent-child relationship, outcome variables (self-esteem versus internalizing and externalizing problems), and power to detect effects due to large differences in sample size.
The issue of whether the quality of the relationship with one father can moderate the relation between the quality of relationship with the second father and child functioning has received very limited attention. Generalizing from a small clinical sample, Wallerstein and Kelly (1980) argued that stepfather-child relationships make the most contribution to child functioning when the child rejects or counter-rejects the nonresidential father. Furstenberg and Spanier (1984) found that better relationships with the nonresidential father were associated with the child’s greater difficulty accepting the stepfather. More recently, White and Gilbreth (2001) tested an interactive model in
predicting internalizing and externalizing problems; neither interactive effect was significant.
The current study examines both the main and interactive effects of the nonresidential father-child relationship and the stepfather-child relationship to children’s mental health problems using children’s beliefs or perceptions of how much they “matter” to or are important to their parents. Of the studies that have considered the role of the quality of these nontraditional father-child relationships, the majority have focused on aspects of authoritative parenting, overall relationship quality, or closeness. No studies to date, however, have explored the extent to which “mattering” to nontraditional fathers relates to child functioning.