SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION
SI METHODS
Voxel based morphometry cohort
For the comparative neuroimaging analysis, a cohort of individuals clinically diagnosed and pathologically confirmed to have CBD, FTD, or PSP was compared against a cohort of cognitively normal healthy controls. To be included in the study, cases were required to have at least one MRI scan available, a clinical diagnosis of CBD, PSP, or FTD, and a pathologically confirmed primary diagnosis concordant with their clinical presentation.
All participants were recruited through on-going studies of healthy aging and neurodegenerative disease administered by the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) Memory and Aging Center (MAC). All participants or their proxy provided written informed consent prior to participation, and all tests were approved by the University of California, San Francisco Committee on Human Research. Each participant underwent a multi-step screening process requiring at least one in-person visit to the MAC. During the screening process, all participants underwent a neurologic exam, detailed cognitive assessment (Rankin et al) and provided a medical history. Each participant brought a study partner who was interviewed to help evaluate the participant’s functional abilities. A multidisciplinary team composed of a neurologist, neuropsychologist, and nurse then reviewed each participant’s data and determined their clinical diagnosis.
Structural Image Acquisition and Processing
Study participants underwent MRI scanning within one year of CDR administration and had at least one T1-weighted MR image available for analysis. Individuals were scanned at the UCSF Neuroscience Imaging Center (NIC) or at the UCSF Veterans Affairs Medical Center (SFVA). Scans from the UCSF NIC were acquired using a 3.0 Tesla Siemens (Siemens, Iselin, NJ) TIM Trio scanner equipped with a 12-channel head coil using a magnetization prepared rapid gradient echo (MPRAGE) sequence (160 sagittal slices; slice thickness, 1.0 mm; field of view (FOV), 256 Χ 230 mm2; matrix 256 Χ 230; voxel size, 1.0 Χ 1.0 Χ mm3; repetition time (TR), 2,300 ms; echo time (TE), 2.98 ms; flip angle, 9°). Scans from the SFVA were acquired on a 1.5 Tesla Siemens Magnetom VISION system (Siemens, Iselin, NJ) equipped with a quadrature head coil using an MPRAGE sequence (164 coronal slices; slice thickness, 1.5mm; FOV, 256 Χ 256 mm2; matrix, 256 Χ 256; voxel size, 1.0 Χ 1.5 Χ 1.0 mm3, TR, 10 ms; TE, 4 ms; flip angle, 15°) or a 4T Bruker MedSpec system with an 8-channel head coil controlled by a Siemens Trio console, using an MPRAGE sequence (192 saggital slices; slice thickness, 1mm; FOV, 256 Χ 224 mm2; matrix, 256 Χ 224; voxel size, 1.0 Χ 1.0 Χ 1.0 mm3; TR, 2840 ms; TE, 3ms; flip angle, 7°).
In all cases, the most recent scan available was used. Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM) 12 was used to segment each participant’s image into grey matter, white matter, and cerebrospinal fluid. The developer’s suggested settings were used for all processing steps and a 8mm FHWM kernel was used to smooth the images. We used a custom DARTEL template, which incorporated images from both healthy aging and neurodegenerative disease.
For each diagnostic group, we ran a voxel-based morphometry analysis comparing it to the same group of cognitively normal health controls. Each analysis controlled for the effects of age, sex, education, scan type, and total intracranial volume (TIV). The resulting maps of statistical significance were thresholded at p<0.001 and overlaid onto a template brain. All voxel-based statistical analyses were conducted using vslm2.55.
Conditional Q-Q plots
Q-Q plots compare a nominal probability distribution against an empirical distribution. In the presence of all null relationships, nominal p-values form a straight line on a Q-Q plot when plotted against the empirical distribution. For CBD, PSP and FTD SNPs and for each categorical subset (strata), -log10 nominal p-values were plotted against -log10 empirical p-values (conditional Q-Q plots, see Supplemental Figure 1). Deflections of the observed distribution from the projected null line reflect increased tail probabilities in the distribution of test statistics (z-scores) and consequently an over-abundance of low p-values compared to that expected by chance (enrichment).
Under large-scale testing paradigms, such as GWAS, quantitative estimates of likely true associations can be estimated from the distributions of summary statistics [4, 6]. One common method for visualizing the enrichment of statistical association relative to that expected under the global null hypothesis is through Q-Q plots of nominal p-values obtained from GWAS summary statistics. The usual Q-Q curve has as the y-ordinate the nominal p-value, denoted by “p”, and as the x-ordinate the corresponding value of the empirical cdf, denoted by “q”. Under the global null hypothesis the theoretical distribution is uniform on the interval [0,1]. As is common in GWAS, we instead plot -log10 p against -log10 q to emphasize tail probabilities of the theoretical and empirical distributions. Therefore, genetic enrichment results in a leftward shift in the Q-Q curve, corresponding to a larger fraction of SNPs with nominal -log10 p-value greater than or equal to a given threshold. Conditional Q-Q plots are constructed by creating subsets of SNPs based on levels of an auxiliary measure for each SNP, and computing Q-Q plots separately for each level. If SNP enrichment is captured by variation in the auxiliary measure, this is expressed as successive leftward deflections in a conditional Q-Q plot as levels of the auxiliary measure increase.
We constructed conditional Q-Q plots of empirical quantiles of nominal –log10(p) values for SNP association with CBD for all SNPs, and for subsets (strata) of SNPs determined by the nominal p-values of their association with PSP and FTD. Specifically, we computed the empirical cumulative distribution of nominal p-values for a given phenotype for all SNPs and for SNPs with significance levels below the indicated cut-offs for the other phenotypes (–log10(p) ≥ 0, –log10(p) ≥ 1, –log10(p) ≥2 corresponding to p < 1, p < 0.1, p < 0.01 respectively). The nominal p-values (–log10(p)) are plotted on the y-axis, and the empirical quantiles (–log10(q), where q=1-cdf(p)) are plotted on the x-axis (Supplemental Figure 1). To assess for polygenic effects below the standard GWAS significance threshold, we focused the conditional Q-Q plots on SNPs with nominal –log10(p) < 7.3 (corresponding to p > 5x10-8).
Genomic Control
The empirical null distribution in GWAS is affected by global variance inflation due to population stratification and cryptic relatedness [2] and deflation due to over-correction of test statistics for polygenic traits by standard genomic control methods [8]. We applied a control method leveraging only intergenic SNPs, which are likely depleted for true associations [5]. First, we annotated the SNPs to genic (5’UTR, exon, intron, 3’UTR) and intergenic regions using information from the 1KGP. We used intergenic SNPs because their relative depletion of associations suggests that they provide a robust estimate of true null effects and thus seem a better category for genomic control than all SNPs. We converted all p-values to z-scores and for all phenotypes we estimated the genomic inflation factor λGC for intergenic SNPs. We computed the inflation factor, λGC as the median z-score squared divided by the expected median of a chi-square distribution with one degree of freedom and divided all test statistics by λGC.
Conditional True Discovery Rate (TDR)
Enrichment seen in the fold enrichment plots can be directly interpreted in terms of TDR (equivalent to one minus the False Discovery Rate (FDR)) [1]. We applied the conditional FDR method [7], previously used for enrichment of GWAS based on linkage information [9]. Specifically, for a given p-value cutoff, the FDR is defined as
FDR(p) = π0F0(p) / F(p), [1]
where π0 is the proportion of null SNPs, F0 is the null cdf, and F is the cdf of all SNPs, both null and non-null. Under the null hypothesis, F0 is the cdf of the uniform distribution on the unit interval [0,1], so that Eq. [1] reduces to
FDR(p) = π0p / F(p), [2]
The cdf F can be estimated by the empirical cdf q =p / , where p is the number of SNPs with p-values less than or equal to p, and N is the total number of SNPs. Replacing F by q in Eq. [2], we get
Estimated FDR(p) = π0p / q, [3]
which is biased upwards as an estimate of the FDR [3]. Replacing π0 in Equation [3] with unity gives an estimated FDR that is further biased upward;
q* = p/q [4]
If π0 is close to one, as is likely true for most GWAS, the increase in bias from Eq. [3] is minimal. The quantity 1 – p/q, is therefore biased downward, and hence is a conservative estimate of the TDR.
Referring to the formulation of the Q-Q plots, we see that q* is equivalent to the nominal p-value divided by the empirical quantile, as defined earlier. Given the -log10 of the Q-Q plots we can easily obtain
-log10(q*) = log10(q) – log10(p) [5]
demonstrating that the (conservatively) estimated FDR is directly related to the horizontal shift of the curves in the conditional Q-Q plots from the expected line x = y, with a larger shift corresponding to a smaller FDR, as illustrated in Supplemental Figure 1. As before, the estimated TDR can be obtained as 1-FDR.
Conjunction statistics – test of association with both phenotypes
We defined the conjunction statistics (denoted as FDR Trait1 & Trait2) as the maximum of the conditional FDR in both directions, i.e.
FDR Trait1 & Trait2 = max(FDR Trait1 | Trait2, FDR Trait2 | Trait1)
based on the combination of p-value for the SNP in CBD and the associated disease (e.g. PSP), by interpolation into a bidirectional 2-D look-up table [4, 6]. The conjunction statistic allows for identification of SNPs that are associated with both phenotypes, which minimizes the effect of a single phenotype driving the common association signal. Table 1 lists all SNPs with conjunction FDR < 0.05 (-log10(FDR) > 1.3) with CBD and PSP or FTD considered after removing all SNPs with r2 > 0.2 based on 1KGP linkage disequilibrium (LD) (pruning).
Conjunction FDR Manhattan plots
To illustrate the localization of the genetic markers associated with CBD given PSP and FTD we used a ‘Conjunction FDR Manhattan plot’, plotting all SNPs within an LD block in relation to their chromosomal location. As illustrated in Figure 2 within the main manuscript, the large points represent the SNPs with FDR < 0.05, whereas the small points represent the non-significant SNPs. All SNPs before ‘pruning’ (removing all SNPs with r2 > 0.2 based on 1KGP LD structure) are shown. The strongest signal in each LD block is illustrated with a black line around the circles. This was identified by ranking all SNPs in increasing order, based on the conjunction FDR value for CBD, and then removing SNPs in LD r2 > 0.2 with any higher ranked SNP. Thus, the selected locus was the most significantly associated with CBD in each LD block (Figure 2).
SI RESULTS
Neuroimaging Analysis
CBD
The comparison of pathologically confirmed CBD cases versus controls revealed diffuse cortical atrophy that was pronounced in the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, insula, and caudate bilaterally. The maximum T-score in the CBD analysis was 9.43 and was centered in the left supplementary motor cortex. The results of the CBD analysis are illustrated in Figure 5 within the main manuscript.
FTD
The comparison of pathologically confirmed FTD cases versus controls revealed pronounced cortical atrophy across the frontal and temporal lobes bilaterally. There was also bilateral atrophy in the caudate and putamen. The maximum T-score in the FTD analysis was 18.17 and was located in the right caudate. The results of the FTD analysis are illustrated in Figure 5 within the main manuscript.
PSP
The comparison of pathologically confirmed PSP cases versus controls revealed diffuse cortical atrophy that was pronounced in the caudate, insula, operculum, and cerebellum bilaterally. The maximum T-score in the PSP analysis was 8.03 and it was located in the left caudate. The results of the PSP analysis are illustrated in Figure 5 within the main manuscript.
Supplemental References
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2. Devlin B, Roeder K (1999) Genomic control for association studies. Biometrics 55:997–1004. doi: 10.1111/j.0006-341X.1999.00997.x
3. Efron B (2007) Size, power and false discovery rates. Ann Stat 35:1351–1377. doi: 10.1214/009053606000001460
4. Efron B (2010) Large-scale inference : empirical Bayes methods for estimation, testing, and prediction. Cambridge University Press, New York
5. Schork AJ, Thompson WK, Pham P, et al. (2013) All SNPs are not created equal: genome-wide association studies reveal a consistent pattern of enrichment among functionally annotated SNPs. PLoS Genet 9:e1003449. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1003449
6. Schweder T, Spjøtvoll E (1982) Plots of p-values to evaluate many tests simultaneously. Biometrika 69:493–502. doi: 10.1093/biomet/69.3.493
7. Sun L, Craiu R V, Paterson AD, Bull SB (2006) Stratified false discovery control for large-scale hypothesis testing with application to genome-wide association studies. Genet Epidemiol 30:519–30. doi: 10.1002/gepi.20164
8. Yang J, Weedon MN, Purcell S, et al. (2011) Genomic inflation factors under polygenic inheritance. Eur J Hum Genet 19:807–812. doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2011.39
9. Yoo YJ, Pinnaduwage D, Waggott D, Bull SB, Sun L (2009) Genome-wide association analyses of North American Rheumatoid Arthritis Consortium and Framingham Heart Study data utilizing genome-wide linkage results. BMC Proc 3:S103. doi: 10.1186/1753-6561-3-s7-s103
SI FIGURE LEGENDS
Fig. S1. Conditional quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots of empirical -log10 p versus nominal -log10 p (corrected for inflation) in corticobasal degeneration (CBD) below the standard GWAS threshold of p < 5x10-8 as a function of significance of association with progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) (left panel), and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) (right panel) at p ≤ 0.1, p ≤ 0.01, and p ≤ 0.001, respectively. Blue line indicates all SNPs.
Fig S2. Regional association plots for (a) rs199533, (b) rs1768208, (c) rs2011946, (d) rs759162 and (e) rs7035933.
Fig S3. Limiting the frontotemporal dementia (FTD) cohort to only patients with diagnosis of behavioral variant FTD (bvFTD): (a) Fold enrichment plots of enrichment versus nominal -log10 p-values (corrected for inflation) in corticobasal degeneration (CBD) below the standard GWAS threshold of p < 5x10-8 as a function of significance of association with bvFTD (left panel) and progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP, right panel) at the level of -log10(p) ≥ 0, -log10(p) ≥ 1, -log10(p) ≥ 2 corresponding to p ≤ 1, p ≤ 0.1, p ≤ 0.01, respectively. Blue line indicates all SNPs. (b) ‘Conjunction’ Manhattan plot of conjunction and conditional –log10 (FDR) values for corticobasal degeneration (CBD) (black) given bvFTD (CBD|bvFTD, red) and CBD given PSP (CBD|PSP, orange). SNPs with conditional and conjunction –log10 FDR > 1.3 (i.e. FDR < 0.05) are shown with large points. A black line around the large points indicates the most significant SNP in each LD block and this SNP was annotated with the closest gene, which is listed above the symbols in each locus.