LECTURE METHOD
Concept of lecture
We may define lecture as expository teaching in which the teacher gives both the principles and the problem solutions. The teacher presents the student with the entire of what is to be learned in final. It is sometimes called deductive teaching because the teacher often begins with a definition of the concepts or principles, illustrate them and unfolds their implications. Expository teaching, however can present a rich body of highly related facts, concepts, and principles, which the student can learn and transfer (John Dececco, 1968).
Why this method?
Lecturer can be used to advantage for the following purposes and activities:
a) An introductory lecture delivered clearly and succinctly, is an effective way to inaugurate the study of a new topic or set the tone for a class session. Such a lecture can serve as a transition between topics linking the old and new.
b) To explain difficult ideas. The student is often unable to figure out the key principles of a subjects unit merely by reading assigned material. From time to time, the teacher may need to serve up those ideas in a readymade from that will enable students to progress in the subjects.
c) To stimulate student desire to learn: Presenting students or even controversial theories or points of view can broaden their understanding.
d) To go over information in a short time: the teacher is often in a race against time to cover the curriculum within a given school year. The lecturer method is an efficient way of providing information to students.
e) To foster in pupils a clear understanding of solutions to questions and issues raised by either themselves or the teacher.
f) To assist pupils to grasp concepts and generalizations by planning and presenting systematic argument and appropriate examples.
g) To help pupils appreciate and acquire the process of reasoning by providing evidence and objects arguments.
h) To gain diagnostic feedback from the pupils on their level of understanding of explanations.
Some more notable advantages of lecture method are:
It is cheap and it makes administrative sense.
It employs a living personality as a medium and this arouses motivation
Lectures can introduce the latest information to clarify content, establish context etc.,
Something that the textbooks cannot do. Information from different sources may be organized and presented in the form of lectures. Lecturers can instantly provide explanations, views, insights and induce enthusiasm to a degree far greater that a printed material.
When are lectures suitable?
The researches conducted on lecture method suggest that lecture method is suitable when: - the basic purpose is the disseminate information.
- the material has to be collected from different sources and organized to be presented to a specific group in a particular way.
- it is necessary to provide introduction, overview, directions etc., in connection with a topic or task.
When are lectures inappropriate?
The researches further indicate that lecture method is inappropriate when:
- Higher order objectives are sought to be accomplished.
- The material is complex, too elaborate or abstract.
- Learner participation is essential to the accomplishment of objectives.
- Long-term retention is necessary.
Types of lecture
There are three forms of lecture: formal, informal and lecture commentary.
(i)Formal lecture: This form of lecture is characterized by one-way communication from the teacher to the whole class. Teacher selects and organizes the lecture material ahead of time and then delivers it with a few changes in the predetermined format. Students do not participate in formal lecture, but the teacher may answer their questions at the end. In this way the teacher presents the subject material in its accepted and understood form exposing students to complex and abstract ideas.
(ii)Informal lecture:
Like the formal lecture, this type of lecture is organized by the teacher who determines the scope and sequence of material. Unlike the formal lecture, it allows the teacher to add spontaneously to the prepared material as the situation demands. Students participate in these lecturers by briefly discussing is closely guided by the teacher. In other words informal lectures adopt a more flexible format, which allows for brief discussions, clarifications, etc., at various points of lecturing as per the needs of the students.
(iii)Lecture commentaries:
This type of lecture differs from the other two in that its main source of information is not the teacher but a book, article or other materials. At key points, the teacher questions students to monitor their understanding of the topic and source material. Such regular questioning urges students to pay close attention and build their mental discipline.
The principles of lecture method:
According to Turney et. al., there are four principles, which under pin the effective use of lecturing. These principles are applicable both in the planning pause and in the actual classroom presentation.
(i) Preparation.
The teacher should as far as possible thoroughly analysis the topic before the explanation is presented. The teacher should also think clearly about what is meant to be connected in the explanations. It is often helpful to write down the things to be linked and then to diagram the connection between them.
(ii) Commitment to evidence.
The teacher should be committed to providing evidences with regard to the question being considered and to promoting rationally in linking evidence with conclusions. It is of assistance to specify the type of relationships that exists between the things are to be linked.
(iii) Coherent organization.
The teacher should ensure that the content matters are arranged and delivered in a coherent manner. The information should be properly sequenced keeping in mind the relationships existing among the ideas o be presented. Whenever a complex topic is dealt with (where two or more generalizations apply) the teacher should take extra care in presenting the information the content should be organized in such a way that the pupils obtain a coherent picture of the complex phenomena.
(iv) Consideration of pupils.
Knowing the pupils for whom a lecture is essential for the teacher. The teacher should prepare the lecture considering pupils capacities, interest and backgrounds. Systematic analysis and coherent logic alone will not ensure understanding. In preparing lecture there fore keep in mind characteristics of pupils groups such as age, ability and school environment.
Procedural steps
1. Introduction to the lecture.
Every lecture has an introduction, body and conclusion. An effective introduction should
a) Motivate the learners:
Motivation can be provided by indicating how lecture is relevant to the goals of the students. For example, the students may be informed that their understanding of their lecture material will be tested/ examined later. This will motivate the learners to attend to the lecture more seriously.
b) Prompt awareness of relevant knowledge or experience:
Questions will help students recall relevant previous knowledge /experience related to the topic of the lecture may be asked. This helps to orient students and establish the context.
c) Expose the essential content:
The topic of the lecture and areas to be covered are clearly mentioned and an outline of the lecture is given to help learners in organizing the content. Ausubel (1980) used the term advance organizers” to describe this kind of preliminary material. The diagram below illustrates the functions of introduction.
Introduction:
2. Developing (the body of the lecture)
(i) Structuring the lecture (organizational forms)
From the introduction, the teacher moves to the body of the lecture. N.L. Gage and David C. Berliner (1983) mention the suggestions of Goyer (19660 in connection with organizing the content of the lectures. Goyers models ( the first 4 of the following) are on the basic of the relationships between/among the ides.
a). Component (part- whole) relationships model
b). Sequential relationships model
c). Relevance relationships model
d). Transitional (connective) relationships model
e). Comparison model (suggested by Gage and Berliner)
Component (part – whole) relationship model:
This model can be effectively used to show how a big idea/ concept is made up of several smaller ones. The relationship of the part- whole is clearly brought out and once the learners understand this relationship, it is easier for them to understand the big concept and remember the smaller ones related to it.
The following diagrams illustrate this model:
Note how the parts are further divided into sub-parts. This kind of organization (termed classification hierarchy by Bligh, 1972) attempts to group various items under a common unifying heading. The grouping reduces the number of separate items making comprehension easier.
Making use of ‘transitional signals’ (eg. “Okay, we are finished with the one. Shall we focus on the next type now?” while moving over to new parts/sub- headings keeps the students alert about the course of the lecture.
The example presented here illustrate how this model is employed.
Sequential relationships model:
Under this model the lecture is arranged on the basis of the sequential nature of the topic. The sequence could be chronological, cause and effective, simple to complex ( building to a climax) ect.
The diagram below illustrate this model.
The example provided below will help you understand the use of this model.
Relevance relationships model:
This model can be effectively used when a lecture focuses on presenting a set of ideas supporting/ illustrating the stands/ statement are identified and presented emphasizing their validity.
Then the other ideas related to the statement but irrelevant for the purpose of upholding/ illustrating the statement/stand are pointed out. However the reason why they are invalid for the purpose of illustrating the statement/ stand is spelt out clearly.
The following diagram illustrates this:
Transitional (Connective) relationships:
This model can be used when a topic is presented so as to be perceived from different angles/ perspectives.
The following diagram illustrate this:
As indicated the topic can be analyzed from many angles. When such a model is used it is important that connectors ( it can be analyzed on the basis of/ according to ) indicating the parallelism of the series of ideas are used appropriate junctures.
Comparison model.
This model can be effectively used when the lecture focuses on comparing/ contrasting two ideas and arriving at conclusions.
Comparing two or more things requires that the bases of the comparison be made explicit. The structure of the organization then takes the form of identifying some bases on which the two things resemble and differ from each other. Then the similarities or differences are listed down and this process continues for all the bases. The overall conclusions are finally arrived at.
The diagram below illustrates this model.
The example given here will enable you to understand how this model is employed.
General aspects. Some other aspects to be considered when developing a lecture are as follows:
(ii)Covering content:
Teacher should ensure that the coverage of the content is adequate. This is especially required when the lecture is the only source of information for the students. Factors such as the duration of the lecture, the availability of aids, the level of the lecturers ect, considerably influence of the coverage of content of in terms of breath and depth.
(iii) Ensuring clarity:
Gage and Berliner suggest the following ways to clarify in lectures.
1. Explicitness: using words which convey the matter directly.
2. The rule example –rule sequence
3. Appropriate use of “explaining links” such as and, therefore, but, because, by, consequently, as a result etc, while making connections in the course of lectures.
4. Avoiding vagueness terms
Ambiguous designations: somehow, somewhere, things etc.
Approximations : about, a little, somewhat, sort of, etc.
Bluffing and recoveries: actually, and so forth, and so on, etc.
Multiplicities: kind(s) of, type(s) of, etc.
Possibilities: it seems so, apparently, probably, etc.
(iv) Providing clarifications:
Citing more examples to illustrate further, providing additional information and establishing new links would help the lecturer clarify the content further.
(v) Maintaining attention:
Some suggestions given by Gage Berliner (*1989) in this connection are:
1. Varying stimuli-
a). Teacher’s style and manner varied tones of voice, moving gesturing, etc.
b). Changing communication channels –slides, graphs, pictures, chalkboards overhead projectors, etc.
2. Introducing activity-discussions,
3. Using humor judiciously etc.
4. Using verbal markers of important point etc.
5. Hinting to focus on the most importance-( Now observe this carefully now……now we are going to focus on the most important point etc.,)
6. Using handouts.
3.The conclusion of the lecture
The conclusion should serve the following purposes:
(i) Summarizing:
It can act as a of “post organizers”, letting students know what they should have learned and identifying key points in the lesson.
(ii) Reviewing:
It gives one more chance to the teacher to see whether students understand the material, by asking them to recall specific ideas or give example, definitions, or applications.
(iii) Answering the questions of students:
It helps the teacher to clear up any misunderstandings by answering students questions.
(iv) Establishing new connections/ letting students explore new dimensions of the topic:
The lecture can hint at other related areas for further study or suggest new possibilities/ approaches which may be attempted at for further understanding of the topic dealt with.
(v) Interacting with the students at social level:
They offer an opportunity to interact with students at a social level, something that has been shown to be related to better learning. E.g.: ‘It’s been a pleasure to teach the class I wish you all good luck.
Model Lesson (Lecture Method)
Sub: Science
Topic: conductors and insulators
Class: VI
Time: 30 minutes
Objectives:
By the end of the lesson, each student will be able to,
i) define conductors and insulators
ii) give examples of conductors and insulators.
Introduction: (Introduction to lecture)
Tr: Greets the students and gains attention of the students. Tr. recapitulates the previous
lesson. Tr. shows a diagram of an open circuit. (Motivating students). In the last class
we learned how to light a bulb. Now look at the diagram carefully and tell whether
the bulb in the circuit will glow or not? (Prompt awareness of relevant knowledge)
St: No.
Tr: Why?