Chapter 12: Motivation and Emotion
Chapter Summary
I. THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF MOTIVATION – Six different theories of motivation fall into three general categories are explored in this section: biological theories (including instinct, drive-reduction, and arousal theory), psychosocial theories (including incentive theory and cognitive theories), and biopsychosocial theories.
A.Biological Theories - Instinct theories suggest there is some inborn, genetic component to motivation. Drive-reduction theory suggests that internal tensions (produced by the body's demand for homeostasis) "push" the organism toward satisfying basic needs, and that the organism learns which specific behaviors will meet this goal. According to the arousal motive, people seek an optimal level of arousal that maximizes their performance. Sensory deprivation studies show that we all need a minimal amount of stimulation for our brains to function properly. There are, however, individual differences in this need. According to Zuckerman, high sensation seekers are biologically "pre-wired" to need a higher level of stimulation, whereas the reverse is true for low sensation seekers.
Applying Psychology to Student Life: Overcoming Test Anxiety - An application section provides some basic study tips to students that struggle with test anxiety including some helpful coping techniques.
B.Psychosocial Theories - According to incentive theory, motivation results from the "pull" of external environmental stimuli. Cognitive theories emphasize the importance of thoughts, attributions, and expectations.
C.Biopsychosocial Theory - Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs or motives that incorporates both biological and psychological theories. He believed that basic physiological and survival needs must be satisfied before a person can attempt to satisfy higher needs. Some critics point out inconsistencies in Maslow’s theory that each individual’s lower needs must be met before attempting to satisfy higher needs.
II.MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOR - Motivation is the study of the "whys" of behavior, whereas emotion refers to subjective feelings or affective responses. Because motivated behaviors are often closely related to emotions, these two topics are frequently studied together. A wide variety of motives are discussed throughout this text. The focus in this chapter is on hunger, arousal, and achievement.
A.Hunger and Eating - Eating is controlled by a complex interaction of both internal and external factors. The stomach, body chemicals, such as, neurotransmitters, hormones, and enzymes, and the brain, particularly the hypothalamus, are the major internal factors. The most effective way to lose weight is a combination of exercise and diet. A large number of people have eating disorders. Anorexia nervosa (extreme weight loss due to self-imposed starvation) and bulimia (excessive consumption of food followed by vomiting or taking laxatives) are both related to an intense fear of obesity. Cultural conditioning is one of the external factors that play a role in hunger. Obesity seems to be due to both biological and psychological reasons.
B.Achievement - Achievement involves the need for success, for doing better than others, and for mastering challenging tasks. Research with intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation shows that extrinsic rewards can lower interest and achievement motivation.
Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Characteristics of High Achievers – This exercise offers a brief self-test on achievement motivation (nAch).
III.THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF EMOTION - There are three basic components to all emotions: the cognitive (thoughts, beliefs, and expectations); the physiological (increased heart rate, respiration rate, etc.); and the behavioral (facial expressions and bodily gestures).
A.Three Components of Emotion - Studies of the physiological component of emotion find that most emotions involve a general, nonspecific arousal of the nervous system. This arousal involves the reticular formation, limbic system, and the cerebral cortex. The most obvious signs of arousal (trembling, increased heart rate, sweating, and so on) result from activation of the sympathetic nervous system, a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic system restores the body to "status quo." Self-report techniques, surveys, and interviews are the usual method for measuring the cognitive component of emotions but are highly subjective. The behavioral component of emotions refers to how we express our emotions. Facial expressions and body movements are two of the major forms of nonverbal communication.
B.Four Major Theories of Emotion - There are four major explanations of emotions differing on how motions become activated.
1.James-Lange Theory - The James-Lange theory suggests we interpret the way we feel on the basis of physical sensations such as increased heart rate, trembling, etc.
2.Cannon-Bard Theory - The Cannon-Bard theory suggests that feelings are created from independent and simultaneous stimulation of both the cortex and the autonomic nervous system.
3.Facial Feedback Hypothesis - The third general theory of emotion, the facial feedback hypothesis, asserts that facial movements elicit specific emotions.
4.Schachter's Two-Factor Theory – Schachter’s two-factor theory suggests that emotions depend on two factors—physical arousal and a cognitive labeling of the arousal. People notice what is going on around them, as well as their own bodily responses, and then label the emotion accordingly.
Research Highlight: Are Abused Children More Alert to Negative Emotions? – Abused children's greater sensitivity to negative emotions, while adaptive in a threatening environment, causes difficulties when these children interact in normal settings.
IV.CRITICAL THINKING ABOUT MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
A.Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation – Intrinsic motivation stems from internal factors such as satisfaction whereas external motivation involves external rewards or avoidance of punishment. Research suggests that extrinsic rewards may lower motivation and interest, if they are not based on competency.
B.The Polygraph as a Lie Detector -The polygraph measures changes in emotional arousal (increase heart rate, blood pressure, and so on). Although the polygraph is used in police work and for employment purposes, psychologists generally object to this practice because they find the polygraph is a poor predictor of guilt or innocence or of truth or lies.
C.Emotional Intelligence (EI) - Emotional intelligence involves knowing and managing emotions, empathy, and maintaining satisfying relationships. Some researchers like Daniel Goleman emphasize the importance of emotional intelligence (EQ) which involves self-awareness, impulse control, persistence, zeal, self-motivation, empathy, and social deftness.
Gender and Cultural Diversity: How Culture, Evolution, and Emotion – Most psychologists believe that emotions result from a complex interplay between evolution and culture. Studies have identified 7 out 10 basic emotions that are universally experienced and expressed in similar ways across almost all cultures. Display rules differ across cultures and between men and women.