The Toulmin Model of Informal Reasoning

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Unit III

Lesson 3: Informal Reasoning

Introduction

In the last lesson, we discussed formal reasoning. The two types of formal reasoning we discussed were deductive and inductive reasoning. In this lesson, we will be discussing a different form of reasoning: informal reasoning. The type of reasoning you use to come to your conclusions is usually based upon the approach you wish to take. As you may remember, deductive reasoning took general principles and applied them to specific instances in order to create knowledge. Inductive reasoning examined several specific examples in order to determine a generalized understanding of something. Informal reasoning operates on the idea that from observations—general or specific—we can make claims. These claims are not certain, but are based upon the interpretation of the evidence before us.

The Toulmin Model of Informal Reasoning

Stephen Toulmin (1922-2009) was a British scholar of communications. His model of informal logic is based upon the following: Data (research) leads us to claims (thesis statements), and we arrive at those claims through warrants (assumptions) about the world. While there are other elements in Toulmin’s model, we will be concentrating on these three, as Toulmin stated that all arguments must contain them. Consider the figure below:

There are a few key principles to Toulmin’s model:

• Writers cannot make claims without first gathering research materials (data).
• Once research is gathered, it is carefully read so as to be understood by the researcher.
• This understanding of the materials then allows the researcher to begin to make claims about a particular topic.
• The way in which the researcher interprets the materials is through the warrants held by the researcher. These warrants are like assumptions that the researcher makes about the world, and these assumptions are closely tied to his or her worldview.
• In this way, the same data (research materials) might be interpreted in several different ways by different authors because different authors hold different assumptions about the world around them.
• Unlike formal reasoning, informal reasoning suggests that the arguments we make can change depending upon who we are and what we believe.

Making the Best Argument for Now

Another important thought that comes out of the Toulmin school of thought is that arguments do not stand for all time—nor should they! In fact, the way that Toulmin’s model is constructed, we are free to change our arguments slightly or completely, depending upon new data that is introduced or discovered. New evidence does not mean that your argument is completely flawed. Instead, new evidence could mean that your claim (thesis statement) just needs to be altered to account for the new evidence. If you think of your argument as a house, then you might think of making amendments to your claim as making home improvements. If your roof tiles are outdated, then you would definitely want to use the newest and best on the market before winter weather sets in. Similarly, you might need to have repairs done to a small section of the roof. Of course, this is a metaphor, but it is easy to see that improvements to your argument can always occur.

Academics are always making arguments. Even academics who are in the hard sciences must do their best to draw conclusions based upon what is in front of them. If another academic performs a study that negates all the studies that have come before, they must analyze the study and adjust their work as necessary.

For you in this course, it may help you to know that you are only responsible for constructing the best argument that you can at this time. If your worldview changes and you begin to interpret the data in a different way later on, then that is fine. If new evidence is introduced after this class, you do not need to worry that your argument is negated. In both cases, you wrote the best argument given what you knew and understood at the time. This is also the reason that you should allow for your ideas to change as you write. The more you know about a topic, the more sophisticated your ideas about the topic become and the better prepared you can be for making the kinds of claims you will need to make in order to write a sound research paper.

Can You Use Several Different Types of Reasoning?

Can you use several different types of reasoning to help you come to your conclusions? Can you utilize several models of reasoning in your paper? The answer to both questions is yes! In fact, you do not necessarily want to deny yourself any research tools while you are working to craft your arguments. You want to be open to different types of data, different ways to interpret the same data, and different claims that arise from your interpretations.

Oftentimes, researchers begin their investigations with a hunch, an unsupported idea about the way that things work. This hunch draws them toward collecting particular materials and organizing their thoughts in a particular way. Let’s consider an example:

David wants to write about the current state of television viewing services in the United States. He has a hunch that it is no longer cost-efficient for families to have both cable service and streaming services, like Hulu, Netflix, or AmazonPrime. Instead, he wants to make the argument that, for most people, having two or three of these streaming services is a smarter approach to program viewing because they cost less and are commercial free.

David has started gathering sources that both support his hunch and do not support it. He wants to be able to analyze the cost-effectiveness of several options in order to make a sound argument. He knows he will also have to take into account the different offerings that each service provides.

He uses the reasoning models he has learned about to help him interpret the data, and he comes up with a claim based upon his findings. He has decided that he wants to write a thesis statement that focuses more on the future of program viewing: “With more and more young families switching to all streaming services for their entertainment viewing, it is likely that within the next 10 years, streaming will become the main source of viewing in the United States.”

David’s rough thesis statement is starting to head in an interesting direction. Taking his ideas from a hunch to a claim has helped him realize his project more fully. Through reasoning and interpretation, you can begin to better understand the direction of your project as well.

Review

1. The basic elements of Toulmin’s model of informal logic are the data (evidence), the warrant (assumptions), and the claim (thesis statement).
2. Writers cannot make claims without first gathering research materials (data).
3. This understanding of the materials then allows the researcher to begin to make claims about a particular topic.
4. The way in which the researcher interprets the materials is through the warrants held by the researcher.
5. Researchers are free to change their arguments slightly or completely, depending upon new data that is introduced or discovered.
6. A hunch, an unsupported idea about the way that things work, draws researchers toward collecting particular materials and organizing their thoughts in a particular way.