Shier/Grammar and Editing

The English Verb System: Overview

Time and Aspect Definitions

Time Frame = When the event takes place: now, at some time in the past, or at some time in the future (3 time frames) The time is the reference point from which the writer or speaker is addressing the action or aspect.

Aspect = The way we look at an action or state (expressed by a verb); whether it occurs at a certain point in time or lasts for a period of time.

ADD NOTES TO THE CHART TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND THESE CONCEPTS

Aspect

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Time Frame

Present / Past / Future
Simple
(finished action at a point in time) / simple present / simple past / simple future
Progressive
(in progress at a point in time) / present progressive / past progressive / future progressive
Perfect
(before point in time) / present perfect / past perfect / future perfect
Perfect Progressive
(in progress before a point in time) / present perfect progressive / past perfect progressive / future perfect progressive

Verbs and verb usage for academic writing.

1. The 40 Most Essential Verbs in Academic Discourse (that aren’t on the AWL or aren’t common simple verbs such as make, give, take, use and show.)

affect consider form matter reflect

allow constitute include obtain relate

appear contain increase occur remain

apply determine indicate produce represent

(a)rise from develop investigate prove require

assume emerge involve provide result (in)

cause find lack reach seem

change follow leave reduce tend

2.  Frequency of Different Kinds of Verbs

“Biber’s, et. al (1999) found that lexical verbs (e.g., walk, sign, talk) are far less common in academic prose than copula be in all its forms. Other verb types common in academic prose in order of frequency from most to least are linking verbs (e.g., appear, become, seem), intransitive verbs, and transitive verbs that require direct objects (e.g, read a book, write a paper).” (Hinkel, 2004)

3. The Most Common Linking Verbs in Academic Writing and Their Adjective Collocates

·  become + apparent / clear / difficult / evident / familiar / important

·  remain + closed / constant / intact / uncertain / unchanged / unknown

·  seem + clear / likely / obvious / possible / reasonable / unlikely

4. Action Verbs with Inanimate Subjects

In academic writing, certain action verbs often have inanimate subjects. Three major types of inanimate subjects are very common:

1.  texts (e.g., reports suggest, this article explains)

2.  subject areas, abstract ideas, actions or processes (e.g., new fields of study have developed, complex decisions take time)

3.  research work (e.g., studies have found, evidence comes from…)

Most Common action verbs that have inanimate subjects:

Shier/Grammar and Editing

·  come

·  explain

·  find

·  give

·  indicate

·  lead

·  need

·  provide

·  show

·  suggest

·  take

Passive & Active Voice student handout

Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary

Discovery Verbs

Discovery verbs (e.g., discover, find) frequently are in the present perfect, but they can also occur in the simple present tense and simple past tense in academic writing. In the present perfect, they tell the results of past research or studies, and they emphasize that the results continue to be important or relevant. When they are in the simple present tense, they emphasize that the results are currently true. In the simple past tense, they suggest that the findings are not as important or relevant now.

Most Common Discovery Verbs in Academic Writing

have discovered

have found

have revealed

have shown

have uncovered

8. Existence Verbs

Existence verbs (e.g., represent, consist of) usually are NOT in Present perfect. They are usually in simple present tense and describe a current state or logical relationship.

Most Common Existence Verbs in Academic Writing

comprise

consist of

constitute

contain

correspond

denote

depend on

illustrate

include

represent

1.  Four Reasons to Use the Passive in Research Writing

Passive is especially common and useful in research writing, where omitting the agent of an action is effective for 4 reasons:

1.  Readers already know the agent (often the researchers)

2.  Using passive allows the object of the research be the subject of the sentence, giving more importance to it than the researchers.

3.  It contributes to sense of objectivity because human actions are not mentioned.

4.  It can be used to create more cohesion in the text.

2. Two Functions of Passive in Research Writing

Passive verbs commonly have 2 functions in research writing:

1.  Describing methods and analyses (be analyzed, be calculated, be carried out, be collected, be measured, be observed, be obtained, be prepared, be set, be tested, be used

2.  Reporting findings, or interpreting their meaning and connection with other research (be determined, be expected, be found, be seen, be shown, be associated with, be believed to be, can be interpreted as)

3. The Most Common Passive Verbs in Academic Writing

(in order of frequency)

made / seen / found / considered
given / used / done / shown

4. Verbs that are always (or almost always) used in the Active Voice:

appear consist happen last resemble stay arrive

come fall occur rest wait belong

die lack remain seem

5. By-Phrase with Passive

A vast majority of passive sentences in formal academic writing do not include the by-phrase.

The by-phrase is used with the passive for 3 reasons:

1.  The agent noun-phrase is long.

2.  The agent is NEW information.

3.  The main verb belongs to a special group of verbs that are often used with non-human by-phrases.

The by-passive is especially common with particular verbs in academic writing. These verbs are special because they by-phrase usually identifies a kind of data or evidence, rather than a human agent. (Ex. The amount of profit in the economy is determined by the amount of surplus value…)

SOME Passive Voice Verbs that Commonly Occur with a Non-Human By-Phrase in Academic Writing (in alphabetical order)

Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011

Passive & Active Voice student handout

Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary

·  be caused by

·  be defined by

·  be described by

·  be determined by

·  be explained by

·  be found by

·  be given by

·  be illustrated by

·  be influenced by

·  be measured by

·  be obtained by

·  be replaced by

·  be represented by

·  be shown by

·  be supported by

Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011

Passive & Active Voice student handout

Advanced Curriculum Vocabulary

In academic writing, it is more common to report what someone wrote rather than what someone said. Usually general ideas or the overall findings of a study are reported, rather than a single statement. Reporting verbs indicate how certain the information is. (Of course, the specific meaning of each word is important.)

1.  Common Reporting Verbs in Academic Writing

2.  Three Common Grammatical Patterns for Reporting Verbs

3.  Reporting Verbs and Noun Clause Chunks for Summary Making

1.  Common Reporting Verbs (organized by certainty level; * = most common)

Very certain / conclude demonstrate describe discuss explain
find* mention note point out present prove
report show* state write
Less certain / argue claim contend hypothesize
imply indicate maintain postulate
propose questions suggest*

2.  Three Common Grammatical Patterns for Reporting Verbs (please look at “Noun Clauses” for more information about grammatical patterns for noun clauses)

1.  Reporting verb + that noun clause (most common)

2.  Reporting verb + noun phrase (as direct object)

3.  As + subject+ reporting verb

3. Reporting verbs and noun clauses chunks for summary making:

·  The author goes on to say / state / show that xxx

·  The author further argues / explains / shows that

·  The article further states that

·  (Smith) also states / maintains/ argues / asserts that

·  (Smith) also believes / concludes / feels that

·  The article / report concludes that

·  In the second half of the article / report, (Johnson) presents xxx to show / explain that

Darby Smith and Monika Mulder, Winter 2011