Table S1. Metals Applications with Primary Substitutes and Substitute Performance
Table S1. Metals applications with primary substitutes and substitute performance
Metal / Application / Application Details / Percentage into Application / Primary Substitute / Substitute Performance / Analysis DetailsLi / Batteries / Used in rechargeable batteries (i.e., lithium-ion and lithium polymer) and primary (disposable) lithium batteries (as the anode material) / 25% (1) (global) / nickel-metal hydride batteries (rechargeable batteries substitute), and zinc for primary batteries (1) / good
Ceramics and glass / Reduces fusion temperatures, permits control of contaminant emissions, and produces a better quality product (2) / 18% (1) (global) / sodium (1) / exemplary
Lubricating greases / Used in specialty lubricants and greases used for working in extreme temperature and change conditions (2) / 12% (1) (global) / calcium (1, 3) / good
Pharmaceuticals and polymers / Used in pharmaceuticals (e.g., to treat bipolar disorder and as a catalyst in some new applications for weight control) and in polymers (2) / 7% (1) (global) / none / not applicable
Air conditioning / Used in air conditioning and dehumidification systems / 6% (1) (global) / ammonia/water systems (4) / poor
Primary aluminum production / Lowers the melting point of the cryolite bath in primary aluminum production (2) / 4% (1) (global) / sodium (2) / good
Continuous casting / Addition of lithium to continuous casting mold fluxes provides thermal insulation and lubrication / 3% (1) (global) / sodium / good
Other / Includes chemical processing / 25% (1) (global) / not applicable / not applicable
Be / Computer and telecommunications products / Serves as both a structural support and heat sink in product applications such as computers, cellular phones, integrated circuits, and radars / 50% (global) / copper-nickel-silicon alloys / adequate / Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
Aerospace and defense / Used in lightweight structural components / 25%(global) / polymers / adequate / Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
Other / Includes appliances, automotive and medical applications, electronics, and industrial components / 25%(global) / not applicable / not applicable / Global values based on estimates for the United States, where the reference indicated nearly one-half was used in computers and telecommunications (1); computers and telecommunications were set at 50%, and the total into the other two applications was assumed to be divided equally
B / Ceramics and glass / Used in borosilicate glass for laboratory glassware and consumer cookware and to form high-strength, lightweight materials used in aerospace and consumer applications / 64%(5)(global) / sodium (1) / good / Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Soaps, detergents, and bleaches / Used primarily in household laundry and cleaning products / 4%(5)(global) / chlorine (for bleaches) and enzymes (for soaps and detergents) (1) / good / Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Agriculture / Serves as a micronutrient / 4%(5) (global) / none / not applicable / Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Other / Includes ferroboron, enamels, and glazes / 27%(5) (global) / not applicable / not applicable / Percentages into applications at the global level do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Mg / Refractories / Used as a refractory material in furnace linings for iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass, and cement production / 83% (6) (global) / none / not applicable / Global values are for 2002
Alumina, chromite, and silica substitute for magnesia in some refractory applications(1), but there is no single primary substitute
Environmental / Used in water treatment and stack-gas scrubbing / 6% (6) (global) / lime / exemplary / Global values are for 2002
Agriculture / Serves as a micronutrient / 5% (6) (global) / none / not applicable / Global values are for 2002
Other / Includes magnesium metal uses (e.g., in aluminum-based alloys used in packaging and transportation, structural uses, and desulfurization of iron and steel), welding fluxes, and chemicals / 6% (6) (global) / not applicable / not applicable / Global values are for 2002
Al / Transportation / Widely used in automotive and truck, railroad, marine, and aerospace industries as castings, extrusions, and sheets / 28% (7) (global) / steel / adequate / Global values are for 2007
Building and construction / Used in windows, doors, facades siding, gutters, and roofing / 24% (7) (global) / steel / good / Global values are for 2007
Packaging / Used primarily in cans and foil / 15% (7) (global) / steel / good / Global values are for 2007
Electrical / Used in electrical lines for power transmission and distribution / 12% (7) (global) / copper / exemplary / Global values are for 2007
Machinery / Used in machinery tools, such as the mold material for the plastics industry / 8% (7) (global) / steel / adequate / Global values are for 2007
Consumer durables / Includes use in cooking utensils and home appliances (e.g., refrigerators) / 7% (7) (global) / copper / good / Global values are for 2007
Other / Includes use in applications like petrochemical piping and tanks / 6% (7) (global) / not applicable / not applicable / Global values are for 2007
Sc / Aerospace and defense / Primarily used in aerospace and military vehicles (8, 9)as an alloying element with aluminum to provide strength and weldability (8, 10) / 50% (informed estimate) (global) / aluminum itself, without addition of scandium / adequate
Lighting / Used in high-intensity metal halide lamps (11) / 20% (informed estimate) (global) / none / not applicable
Sports equipment / Used primarily in bicycles, baseball bats, golf clubs, and lacrosse sticks (12) / 20% (informed estimate) (global) / titanium / good
Other / Includes metallurgical research, analytical standards, capacitors, and transistors / 10% (informed estimate) (global) / not applicable / not applicable
Ti / Pigments / Used in paint, plastics, ceramics, and paper / 88% (global) / talc / adequate / Based upon the estimate that 95% of total titanium supply is consumed in the form of titanium dioxide (13) and, globally, that 93% of titanium dioxide is used as a white pigment in paint, plastic, and paper from TZ Minerals International as cited in (14)
Other / Includes titanium metal uses and chemicals / 12%(global) / not applicable / not applicable
V / Full alloy steel / Used in castings and pipeline fittings / 43% (global) / niobium (1, 15) / adequate / Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16)and was disaggregated based upon United States values(1)
High-strength low-alloy steel / Used in construction, pipelines, and automotive applications / 32% (global) / niobium (1, 15) / adequate / Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16)and was disaggregated based upon United States values (1)
Carbon steel / Reinforces bars used mostly in the automobile industry and in construction / 16%(global) / niobium (1, 15) / adequate / Global value is an aggregate category of “steel” (16)and was disaggregated based upon United States values(1)
Other / Includes use in batteries and jewelry / 9% (global) / not applicable / not applicable
Cr / Buildings and infrastructure / Used in elevators, street furniture, and steel reinforced concrete / 25% (17)(global) / manganese / adequate / Application is dominated by constructional alloys for which manganese, molybdenum, and nickel are considered adequate substitutes(18). Aluminum is an adequate substitute in elevators and street furniture. Galvanized steel is an adequate substitute in steel reinforced concrete.
Global values are for 2000
Industrial machinery / Used in chemical and petrochemical applications, as well as in power generation, food processing, heat exchangers, and tanks / 25% (17)(global) / none / not applicable / Aluminum is a poor substitute in food processing equipment.
Global values are for 2000
Transportation / Used in cars, ships, trains, aircraft components, and bicycles / 15% (17)(global) / aluminum / adequate / Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of chemicals or food by truck, rail, or ship, or for the hulls of container ships orbulk carriers. Tin-nickel, silicon-based coatings, and organic polymer films are adequate substitutes for automotive plating applications.
Global values are for 2000
Household appliances and electronics / Used in dishwashers, washing machines, and consumer electronics / 5% (17)(global) / aluminum / adequate / Aluminum and plastic are good substitutes in white goods. Tin-nickel alloy is an adequate substitute for plating in electronics.
Global values are for 2000
Other / Used inmetal goods such as cutlery and fasteners, and also in refractory and chemical applications / 30% (17)(global) / not applicable / not applicable / Brass can be a good substitute in some stainless steel fasteners(19); tungsten carbide is a good substitute in high-speed steels; and aluminum is an adequate substitute in miscellaneous metal goods.
Global values are for 2000
Mn / Metallurgy / Used in steel metallurgy as a deoxidizing and desulfurizing agent / 90% as cited in (20) using data from(21, 22)(global) / none / not applicable
Non-steel alloys / Used mostly as aluminum alloys (e.g., beverage cans, kitchen ware, and roofing) (23, 24) / 6% as cited in (20) using data from(21, 22)(global) / plastics (25) / adequate
Batteries / Used in dry cell batteries as the cathode material / 2% as cited in (20) using data from(21, 22) (global) / lithium ion batteries / exemplary / Although manganese may be used as cathode material in lithium ion batteries, the cathode material can also be an oxide (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide) or a polyanion (e.g., lithium iron phosphate)
Other / Used in other metallurgy (e.g., copper and nickel), for corrosion protection of aluminum alloys, as a brick colorant, and in plant fertilizers and animal feed / 2% as cited in (20) using data from(21, 22) (global) / not applicable / not applicable
Fe / Construction / Used in bridges, buildings, and highways / 48% (26)(global) / wood / adequate
Machinery / Used in machine tools, construction equipment, farm implements, and electricity power lines / 31% (26) (global) / fiber-reinforced polymer(27) / adequate
Transportation / Used in cars, trucks, aircraft, subways, and trains / 13% (26) (global) / aluminum(27) / good
Metal goods / Includes use incans and containers, household appliances, and electronic equipment / 8% (26) (global) / aluminum (27) / good
Co / Superalloys / Used primarily in turbine engine components / 22%(28) (global) / nickel / adequate / Global values are for 2006
Nickel-based superalloys may substitute for cobalt-based superalloys. For higher operating performance, most nickel-based alloys contain cobalt. If cobalt is not added, the performance decreases.
Batteries / Used in lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and nickel-cadmium batteries in consumer goods and in hybrid electric vehicles (mostly as nickel-metal hydride batteries) / 22%(28) (global) / manganese / good / Global values are for 2006
Manganese can substitute for cobalt in lithium ion batteries (and, these, in turn, may substitute for nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium batteries)
Cemented carbides / Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment / 11%(28) (global) / nickel with chromium / adequate / Global values are for 2006
Catalysts / Used primarily in petroleum refining, products for plastics and detergent manufacture, and polyester precursors / 11%(28) (global) / nickel / good / Global values are for 2006
Nickel substitutes for cobalt in petroleum-refining catalysts (1), which accounts for the largest amount of cobalt in catalysts (29)
Pigments / Used in coloring glass and in paints / 9%(28) (global) / none (30) / not applicable / Global values are for 2006
Other elements can substitute for some degree for cobalt (e.g., cerium, iron, and vanadium), but there is no single substitute
Magnets / Used primarily in Alnico magnets (for applications like electric motors and loudspeakers) and in samarium-cobalt magnets magnets (for applications like turbomachinery and spectrometers) / 7%(28) (global) / neodymium magnets / good / Global values are for 2006
Other / For example, as driers, in soaps, and as tire adhesives / 18%(28) (global) / not applicable / not applicable / Global values are for 2006
Ni / Industrial machinery / Used in chemical and petrochemical industries, food processing, industrial plumbing, and heat exchangers / 31% based upon modifications to (31)(global) / nickel-free stainless steels / poor / Adequate performance in the food processing industry
Household appliances and metal goods / Used in dishwashers, washing machines, rice cookers, tools, fasteners, cutlery, and pots and pans / 28% based upon modifications to (31)(global) / nickel-free stainless steels / good(32)
Building and construction / Used in architectural applications and street furniture / 17% based upon modifications to (31)(global) / nickel-free stainless steels / good(32) / Coated aluminum is a good substitute in street furniture.
Transportation: excluding aerospace / Used in automotive applications, shipbuilding, railway applications, and bicycles / 15% based upon modifications to (31)(global) / aluminum / adequate / Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of chemicals or food by truck, rail, or ship; the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers; and plated applications.
Transportation: aerospace / Used primarily in jet engine blades / 4% based upon modifications to (31)(global) / none / not applicable / Titanium aluminide (TiAl)-based alloys are good substitutes for low-pressure turbine blades(33), but no substitutes exist for high-pressure turbine blades. New manufacturing techniques for TiAl have been proposed, with the potential to replace nickel in all engine parts (34). No substitutes exist for plating applications.
Electronics / Used in various computer parts and in cellular phones / 5% based upon modifications to (31)(global) / none / not applicable / Includes many miscellaneous uses, such as nickel-iron, stainless steels, high nickel alloys, copper alloys, plating, solders, and chemicals
Cu / Electrical / Used in electric motors and generators, power transmission lines, and housing and industrial wiring / 26% (35) (global) / aluminum (36) / poor / Global value includes building wire and power utility; electrical uses of copper are in nearly every end-use category
Industrial / Used in industrial equipment and machine tools / 19% (35) (global) / steel (36) / adequate
Transportation / Used in aircraft, marine, tanks, automotive, and train systems / 13% (35) (global) / aluminum (36) / poor
Cooling / Used in air conditioning equipment and heating tubing / 7% (35) (global) / aluminum (36) / adequate
Plumbing / Includes fixtures and pipes / 6% (35) (global) / plastics (polyvinyl chloride) (36) / good
Communications / Used in telecommunications wiring / 5% (35) (global) / optical fiber (silicon) (36) / exemplary
Electronics / Used in switches, printed circuit foils, transistor bases, microwave tubes, and computers / 4% (35) (global) / aluminum (36) / poor
Architecture / Used in roofing and decorative items / 2% (35) (global) / aluminum (36) / good
Building plant / Used in nails, rivets, soldering copper, and metal seals / 1% (35) (global) / steel (36) / adequate
Other / Includes chemical and inorganic pigments, watches, clocks, and jewelry / 17% (35) (global) / not applicable / not applicable
Zn / Galvanizing / Used in construction, utilities, industrial equipment, consumer goods, and automotive applications / 50%(37)(global) / aluminum/silicon alloy / good / Global values are for 2005
Brass and bronze / Used in construction, transportation (e.g., railway engineering parts and bridge and expansion plates),and electrical applications / 17% (37)(global) / aluminum-based alloys (1) / good / Global values are for 2005
Zinc-based alloys / Used in construction, consumer goods, and automotive applications / 17%(37)(global) / aluminum-based alloys (1) / good / Global values are for 2005
Other / Includes semi-manufactured items and chemicals / 16%(37) (global) / not applicable / not applicable / Global values are for 2005
Ga / Integrated circuits / Used in integrated circuits / 67% (38)(global) / silicon / good
Optoelectronic devices / Includes laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, and solar cells / 31% (38)(global) / indium phosphide / good
Other / Includes research and development and specialty alloys / 2%(38)(global) / not applicable / not applicable
Ge / Fiber optic systems / Used in telecommunication infrastructure, cellular phones, and optical fibers / 30% (1) (global) / aluminum oxide / good
Infrared optics / Used in lenses, windows, and infrared thermal imaging systems, mainly for military applications / 25% (1) (global) / zinc selenide (1) / good
Polymerization catalysts / Used in catalysts for production of polyester, synthetic textile fibers, and plastics / 25% (1) (global) / titanium alkoxides / adequate
Electronics and solar electric applications / Used in solar cells, automobile taillights, cameras, flashlights, cellular telephone display screens, televisions, and traffic signals / 15% (1) (global) / silicon (1) / good
Other / Includes phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy / 5% (1) (global) / not applicable / not applicable
As / Wood preservation and pesticides / Used in wood preservatives and agricultural chemicals / 68% (global) / copper (39) / good / Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Semiconductor devices / Used in light-emitting diodes, displays, lasers, microwave devices, solar cells, and integrated circuits / 7% (global) / silicon (41) / good / Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Copper alloys / Used in industrial plant piping, radiators, and brass / 7% (global) / antimony (39) / good / Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Other / Used as a fining agent in the glass industry, as a decolorizing agent, in ceramics, and in pharmaceuticals / 18% (global) / not applicable / not applicable / Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
Se / Glass manufacturing / Used to decolorize container and other glass, to reduce solar heat transmission in architectural plate glass, and to produce red color in plastics, ceramics, and glass (1) / 40% (42) (global) / cerium oxide (36) / good
Metallurgy / Used to improve machinability of copper, lead, and steel alloys (1) / 25% (42) (global) / bismuth (36) / good
Agriculture / Serves as a micronutrient / 15% (42) (global) / none / not applicable
Chemical and pigments / Used in plastics, inks, paints, catalysts in chemical reactions, and the preparation of organic compounds and rubber / 10% (42) (global) / tellurium (36) / good
Electronics / Used in photocopiers, electrical rectifiers, and solar cells / 10% (42) (global) / silicon (36) / good
Sr / Pyrotechnics and signals / Used mainly in fireworks and flares / 30%(global) / none (1, 43) / not applicable / Global values based on estimates for the United States(1)
Ferrite ceramic magnets / Used mainly in toys, electronics, and windshield wipers / 30%(global) / barium (1) / adequate / Global values based on estimates for the United States(1)