Notes for Dr. Nownes 421 Parties and Interest Groups
> What is an Organized Interest?
1. Definitions
1. Interest Group – NRA, PETA, etc.
a. Try to effect policy.
b. Represent people.
c. Members, individuals.
2. Organized Interest – any organization that engages in political activity.
3. Lobby – Attempting to influence government decisions.
4. Lobbyist – Someone who lobbies for a living.
5. Political Party – an organization that nominates candidates for office.
2. Types of organized interests
1. Corporations
2. Trade associations – An organized group of businesses
a. Machine Knife Association
b. American Pharmaceutical Association
c. Chamber of Commerce
d. Two types: Peak (all types) and Single Industry (just one)
3. Labor Unions – A group of workers joined together for collective bargaining
with employers.
4. Professional Associations – Organizations that represent the interests of people
in a specific profession.
a. American Medical Association
b. American Bar Association
5. Citizen Group – An organization open to any citizen.
6. Think Tank – Non-profit institution that conducts and distributes research.
a. Heritage Foundation
7. Governmental Entities – An organized interest that lobbies government on
behalf of some other government, or other part of the government.
8. Universities and Colleges
9. Charities – Organized interest that exists to help the needy.
10. Churches – An organized interest group of worshippers or believers.
a. Both individual churches and denominations.
11. Coalitions – OI consisting of other organized interests and/or individuals.
a. Sometimes temporary.
b. Campaign Finance Reform
12. PAC – Political Action Committee – Special type of organized interest setup
to collect and spread money on electoral campaigns.
13. Other
a. United Nations, etc.
14. Summary
a. There are many different types of Ois.
b. Most of OIs are not membership groups. They are institutions.
c. Most OIs do not exist for political purposes.
3. The evolutions of OIs in the United States
1. OIs have always existed in the United States.
2. OIs exist almost everywhere in the world.
3. The United States has the most OIs.
4. The United States has more OIs active now than ever before.
5. Why?
a. Affluence.
b. Technology – especially communication technologies.
c. Civil Liberties – freedom of expression.
d. Diversity.
e. Lots of governments.
f. Single federal government.
4. Summary
1. Be able to provide a one sentence definition of Organized Interest.
2. Be able to explain why we say Organized Interest instead of Interest Group.
3. Be able to define Lobby and Political Party.
4. Know the different types of Organized Interests.
5. Know the difference between OIs and other organizations.
> Where do OIs come from?
1. Just because an interest exists doesn’t mean an OI exists.
1. Unequal Organized Interest Representation – the tendency for some interests to
be better represented by OIs than others.
2. Why are some interests better represented than others by OIs.
a. Formation – Coming into existence as an OI. When it becomes
politically active.
b. Survival – remaining in business as an OI.
2. Barriers to Organized Interest formation and survival.
1. Cost – Money, time, and effort.
2. The “free-rider” problem – the tendency for individuals not to join OIs that
work on their behalf.
3. Political efficacy problem – the tendency for people to think that one person
cannot make a difference.
4. Some groups have an easier time overcoming these barriers than others.
3. How OIs overcome these barriers.
1. Get patron support. Government, Corporate, Foundation, etc.
2. Selective Benefits.
a. Material benefits.
b. Social benefits.
c. Purposive benefits. The “good feeling” you get.
3. Coercion.
a. Labor Unions
b. Professional Associations such as the ABA.
4. Groups that have an easier time overcoming these barriers have an easier time
lobbying.
4. What interests have the easiest time overcoming these barriers.
1. Groups of people with lots of resources.
2. Institutions don’t have to deal with the efficacy or free rider problems.
3. Groups of intense individuals – people who feel strongly about an issue.
5. Summary
1. Some interests have an easier time overcoming the barriers to formation and survival than do others.
> What do OIs do?
1. Introduction
1. OIs lobby.
2. Though OIs lobby, most spend a minority of their time doing so.
2. Non-political activities of OIs.
1. Perform their primary function – selling merchandise, etc.
2. Getting money – fundraising, patron support, grants.
a. Membership organizations get most of their money through direct mail.
3. Sales of goods and services.
4. Self governance
a. Non-democratic hierarchy.
3. Monitoring
1. Monitoring is the most important political activity.
2. Monitoring means keeping track of what the government, and other groups
associated with your field of interest, are doing.
4. Why lobby the government?
1. What the government does affects us all.
5. Lobbying basics.
1. Direct formal lobbying – Face to face with lobbyist and policy maker.
2. Direct informal lobbying – More informal setting, such as a banquet.
3. Indirect lobbying – Reporters, staff members, etc.
4. Policy Analysis – Almost all lobbying provides information.
a. Lobbyists present biased information.
5. Political Analysis
a. Information about the political situation.
6. Lobbying is the provision of information
a. Political information.
b. Legal Analysis.
6. Direct Formal Lobbying
1. Lobbying the legislature.
a. Most common target for lobbyists.
i. Why? Power, accessible, staff, hearings.
b. Techniques
i. Testifying at legislative hearings.
1. Subcommittee, Committee.
2. Witnesses.
3. Written statements.
ii. Personal meetings.
1. With staff or legislator.
2. Consistently cited by lobbyists as the most effective way
to effect legislation.
2. Lobbying the chief executive.
a. Uncommon.
b. Sometimes involves lobbying staff.
i. There are many staff members.
c. Liaison offices.
d. OPL – Office of the Public Liaison.
i. Meeting with the C.E. or staff.
ii. Interacting with OPL.
3. Lobbying the bureaucracy.
a. Bureaucracy – Part of the govt. that implements policy.
i. There are over 18 million people employed by the US govt.
ii. Officials like to delegate power to the bureaucracy because:
1. Takes burden off of them; lets experts handle it.
2. Allows them to shift blame when necessary.
b. Techniques for lobbying the bureaucracy:
i. Testifying at bureaucratic hearings.
1. Who would want to testify at a hearing about teenage
smoking?
ii. Meet with bureaucrats.
iii. Serve on advisory committees.
iv. Participate in adjudication.
1. Complain and protest punishment before an
administrative law judge.
v. Affecting who gets appointed to what committee.
1. 3400 bureaucrats appointed by the president.
4. Lobbying the courts
a. Courts spend most of their time resolving disputes.
b. Courts rarely make policy.
c. Judiciary has the power to interpret laws and the constitution.
d. How do lobbyists lobby the courts?
i. Litigation – they sue someone, typically the government.
1. Ex: Brown vs. Board of Education
2. ACLU, NAACD do this.
ii. File amicus brief
1. Presented by someone interested in influencing the
outcome of a lawsuit, but who is not a party to it.
Midterm Exam #1
7. Informal Direct Lobbying
1. Old textbook: Lobbying is about the three Bs.
a. Bribes, Boos, Broads.
b. Significance? Lobbyists have bad reputations, which is somewhat
justified.
c. Though bad things do happen, they’re pretty uncommon.
2. Techniques
a. Wining, Dining, and Schmoozing.
b. Gift giving.
i. Favors.
ii. Junkets.
1. Free trip as long as Congressman is acting in an official
capacity.
3. Lobbying Laws
a. Disclosure
i. Lobbyists must disclose their activities, who they are, where
they live, who they’re lobbying for, on what issue they’re
lobbying.
ii. Gift ban
1. Federal limit is $50 per item $100 per year.
2. Exceptions: Awards, travel, food and drink.
iii. Read DD chapter 13 for better details.
4. Advertisements – TV, magazines, billboards, etc.
a. Advertorials – Like advertisements, but include editorials about policy
issues. Aimed towards journalists.
5. Getting free media time – Demonstrations, protests, etc.
6. Internet communications – Websites, email lists, forums, easy to complete
forms.
7. Telephone – Phone calls.
8. Publishing research reports.
a. Think tanks do this most.
b. “Wow” chips story and anal leakage.
9. Astro turf lobbying – Bogus indirect lobbying.
a. Making up letters, etc.
10. Conclusion.
a. Indirect lobbying is aimed at citizens instead of policy makers.
b. Be able to answer: Why lobby indirectly?
c. Direct mail is the most common technique.
d. Goal of all indirect lobbying campaigns:
i. Affect your opinions.
ii. Get you to contact your policy maker.
8. Lobbying with money
1. Introduction
a. Candidates for public office need lots of money.
b. What is the money spent on?
i. Mass media advertisements.
1. TV, radio, bumper stickers, email, etc.
2. Staff and travel.
c. Sources of campaign money:
i. Most campaign money (50-60%) comes from private citizens.
ii. The government provides money to parties and presidential
candidates.
iii. PACs – Political Action Committees
iv. Personal funds.
v. Political parties.
2. How OIs lobby with money
a. FECA – Federal Election Campaign Act
i. Mandates disclosure.
1. Candidates running for office have to disclose their
spending and contributions over $100.
2. Groups must itemize campaign contributions.
3. Sets contribution limits on individuals and PACs.
a. Individuals - $1000 per election.
b. PACs - $5000 per election
ii. Setup federal funding for presidential election.
iii. Prohibits direct contributions from OIs to candidates and
parties.
1. OIs set up PACs to get around this.
3. Lobbying with money part 2
a. Techniques
i. Some OIs are allowed to form PACs.
1. Corporations
2. Some citizen groups
3. Trade Associations
4. Labor Unions
5. Professional Associations
ii. OIs make PAC contributions.
iii. PACs can spend money independently
1. Unlimited spending.
2. Must disclose how much and what for.
iv. Affiliated and non-affiliated PACs.
1. Non-affiliated PACs aren’t attached to an OI.
v. OIs + PACs can “bundle”
1. Bundling is combining the checks that many of the PAC
supporters send and then giving it all to a candidate.
Makes the contribution seem much larger.
2. This is a loophole.
3. There is no limit to the amount that can be given this
way.
vi. OIs can make in-kind contributions.
1. These contributions are disclosed.
vii. OIs can run issue advocacy ads.
viii. OIs can distribute voter guides.
ix. OIs can make “soft money” contributions.
1. Soft money is composed of the unlimited contributions
to political parties.
a. Mostly done by corporations, labor unions, and
individuals.
4. PAC giving
a. In general, PACs like to give money to incumbents.
b. They also give money to both sides.
5. What does it buy?
a. Access
b. A government that you like.
c. Small favors. Remember the jeep rack story?
6. Summary
a. Running for office costs lots of money.
b. Know who the major contributors are – individuals are the largest.
c. Know the techniques OIs use when they lobby.
d. Soft money and issue advocacy.
> How powerful are OIs?
1. Introduction
a. There are many OIs in the United States, existing at all levels of
government.
b. This question is difficult to answer since policy outcomes have multiple
causes.
c. We can’t answer it definitively but we can answer it probabilistically.
2. The conditions of OI influence.
a. Sub-government theory – Each sub-govt. contains a small number of
OIs, legislators, and bureaucrats who interact with each other to make
policy. Each policy area has it’s own sub-govt.
i. This theory is wrong. Politics and policy making is far more
complex than it makes them seem.
b. Under what conditions do OIs get what they want?
i. They face no opposition from other political actors.
ii. They lobby on issues that no one cares about.
iii. They lobby on issues that re technical and complex.
iv. They lobby policy makers who are undecided.
v. They lobby on issues that are non-partisan and non-ideological.
3. What an OI can do to improve it’s chances of success?
a. Enter into coalitions with other groups.
4. When Organized Interests collide
a. Factors that determine which OI wins include:
i. Which OI has the most money.
ii. What the public wants.
iii. If it comes down to constituents vs. OI, the constituents always
win.
> Part 2 of the course – Political Parties?
1. What is a political party?
a. A political party is a group of individuals seeking to control the
government by gaining office in a duly constitutional election.
b. An OI that can nominate candidates for office.
c. Three parts to a political party.
i. Party in the electorate – normal people claiming membership.
ii. Party organization.
iii. Party in government.
2. What do parties do?
a. Nominate candidates for office.
b. Raise and spend money.
c. Help candidates.
i. Endorsements.
d. Act as cues for voters.
e. Articulate policies.
3. Two party system.
a. America has always had two major parties. Why?
i. America’s electoral system favors two parties.
ii. An alternative would be proportional representation.
iii. Test answer: America has a unique electoral system.
> Parties and Nominations?
1. Introduction
a. Nominating – Designating an individual as the official candidate of a
party.
2. Nomination Methods
a. Three methods to get party nomination.
1. Run in primary.
2. Legislative caucus – “smoke filled room” system.
3. Convention system – parties choose a candidate at a convention.
3. Presidential Nominations
a. National Convention – place where the party officially chooses it’s
candidate for President, adopts a party platform, and general
campaigning occurs.
i. Primary elections choose the nominee, so the national
convention isn’t very important. Delegates vote, state by state, to
choose nominee.
ii. When you vote in the primary election, you are actually voting
for a delegate to vote for you.
b. Different types of primaries
i. Open primaries – Delegates can vote in whatever party’s primary
they want.
ii. Closed primary – Can only vote for party you have registered as.
iii. Blanket primaries –