Name:Block:ACT Grammar Notes
Name:Block:ACT Grammar Notes
Punctuation
Commas with Compound Sentences
Key Concept: Use a comma before the conjunction to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence.
Independent clause: a group of words with a subject and verb that can stand by itself as a complete sentence.
Examples: My mother loves the country, but my father prefers the city.
The ideas in the independent clauses are closely related to each other.
Compound sentences should NOT be formed unless there exists some type of relationship between the independent clauses.
Difference between compound and simple sentences:
Compound: Leslie went to Broadway, and she saw a play.
Simple: Leslie went to Broadway and saw a play.
Before placing a comma before a conjunction (and, but, or, so, nor, yet, for), make sure you have a complete sentence on both sides of the conjunction.
Exercises: Page 521, Exercise 10, ?s 1-5
Exercise 11, ?s 1-5
Add these exercises to your notes!
Exercise 10
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Exercise 11
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Comma Splices
When two independent clauses are joined by only a comma, that forms a comma splice. Avoid them like the plague on the ACT.
Example: We’ve been taking notes for half an hour, I’m getting sick of writing.
This is a comma splice. To fix it, simply add an appropriate conjunction after the comma.
Commas with Series and Adjectives
Series: A series consists of THREE or MORE words, phrases, or subordinate clauses of a similar kind. A series can occur in any part of a sentence.
KEY CONCEPT: Use commas to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a series.
Commas with Series and Adjectives
Examples:
Words: The subway car was crowded, noisy, and fast.
Phrases: We explored the city by bus, by train, and by car.
Clauses: The survey revealed that many New Yorkers were satisfied with the mayor, that they supported the new laws, and that they wanted the fiscal policy to continue.
How many commas?
For our purposes, you should have one fewer comma than you have items. So, if you have FOUR clauses in your sentence that need to be separated, you will have THREE commas.
When conjunctions are used to separate all of the items in a series, NO commas are needed.
Example: We wanted to watch the game and eat hamburgers and then see the fireworks.
*Also, don’t use commas to separate items that are paired so often that they are thought of as one item.
Example: We ate grilled cheese sandwiches, baloney sandwiches, and peanut butter and jelly sandwiches.
KEY CONCEPT: Use commas to separate adjectives of equal rank.
Adjectives are of equal rank if you can insert the word ‘and’ between them without changing the meaning of the sentence.
Another way to determine equal rank is to reverse the order in which they appear. If the sentence still sounds correct, the adjectives are of equal rank.
These are also called coordinate adjectives.
Examples: The tall, majestic building rose above the skyline.
You could just as easily say: “The tall AND majestic building rose above the skyline,” without changing the meaning, so a comma needs to separate the adjectives.
KEY CONCEPT: Do not use commas to separate adjectives that must stay in a specific order.
Example: The long ticket line is moving faster than the shorter reservations line.
These types of adjectives are called cumulative adjectives because they build on each other.
On page 523, complete exercise 12
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On page 524, complete exercise 13 ?s 1-5
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Commas after introductory material
Key Concept: Use a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or clause.
Examples:
Introductory words:
Well, I find it difficult to decide.
Yes, Charles agrees with our plan.
Common Expressions: Of course, I don’t remember the surgery.*
*Note that this changes depending on how the sentence reads.
Introductory Adverbs: Frantically, they searched for a parking spot.
Angrily, he kicked the dog.
*Prepositional Phrases:
*Prepositions are always part of a group of words called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases contain a preposition and a related noun or pronoun known as the object of the preposition. See page 256 for examples.
Sentence Example: Under the desk, Tom found his lost shoe.
Other phrase types: Walking slowly, she reached the subway in about ten minutes.
Written carefully, the speech was a masterpiece.
To get to Broadway, they rode in a taxi.
To see the Zebra, they had to crane their necks.
Adverb Clauses*
* Adverb Clauses modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs by telling where, when, in what way, to what extent, under what condition, or why.
Example sentences: When the team got off the plane, hundreds of fans cheered.
After lunch, Joe went to see a movie.
Page 526, Exercise 15, questions 1-10
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Commas with Parenthetical and Nonessential Expressions
Parenthetical Expressions consist of one or more words that, in a sense, interrupt the flow of a sentence.
*Such expressions are set off by one or more commas, no matter where they appear in a sentence.
KEY CONCEPT: Use commas to set off parenthetical expressions.
Common types of parenthetical expressions:
Nouns of Direct Address: Please, Ben, could you help me? I’ll do it right away, Mom.
Conjunctive Adverbs: (adverbs that act like conjunctions to connect ideas; see page 260): The game, therefore, was postponed. They did their best, however.
Common Expressions: I am explaining the theory, I believe, as clearly as I can.
You know, of course, that she is ill.
Contrasting Expressions: We took the subway, not the bus, to work.
New York, not Chicago, has the Empire State Building.
Complete Exercise 16 on page 529 ?s 1-5
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Commas with Parenthetical and Nonessential Expressions
KEY CONCEPT: Do NOT use commas to set off essential expressions.
Any words, phrases, or clauses that specifically identify the person or object the sentence is about are essential.
If removing those words, phrases, or clauses changes the core meaning of the sentence, they require no commas.
Examples:The part was played by the famous actor Henry Fonda.
The man wearing the white cap is my uncle.
The paragraph that we propose to add changes the entire bill.
In each of these examples, the highlighted portion of the sentence is essential to its meaning. Therefore, no commas are necessary.
Key Concept: Use commas to set off nonessential expressions.
If you can remove the expression without changing the meaning of the sentence, it is nonessential.
Examples:The part was played by Henry Fonda, the famous actor.
This graceful bridge, built in the 1800’s, spans a lake in Central Park.
The lake, which sometimes freezes in winter, is great for summer boating.
Each of the highlighted phrases adds helpful information, but none of them are necessary. Therefore, they must be set off by commas.
Complete exercise 17 on page 530 ?s 1-5
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Quotes
“Kentucky lost their game last night, and I cried a little,” said Mr. Corman.
Robbie yelled, “Why would you root for a Swiss tennis player?”
“Why would you root for a Swiss tennis player?” Robbie yelled.
Other Uses for Commas
Clarity: Use a comma to prevent a sentence from being misunderstood.
Example: For New York police horses have been a mode of transportation.
Without a comma, this sentence is confusing.
Make certain that you know why you are inserting a comma in a sentence. This way, you won’t overuse them.
Semicolons and Colons
Semicolons are used to connect two independent clauses containing similar or contrasting ideas.
Often, the independent clauses connected by the semicolon are similar in structure as well as in meaning.
Key Concept: Use a semicolon to join independent clauses that are not already joined by the conjunction and, but, for, nor, or, so, or yet.
The semicolon is a stronger punctuation mark than a comma. It replaces both the conjunction and the comma in what would otherwise be a compound sentence.
Example: Martha Washington was the first lady; she was married to George Washington.
Key Concept: Use a semicolon to join independent clauses separated by either a conjunctive adverb or a transitional expression.
Common conjunctive adverbs are: accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, however, indeed, instead, otherwise, therefore, and thus.
Transitional expressions include: as a result, at this time, first, for instance, in fact, on the other hand, second, and that is.
Examples:Conjunctive adverb: We think of Washington D.C. as the nation’s capital; however, the capital used to be New York City.
Transitional expression: Martha Washington entertained graciously; in fact, she set a precedent for First Ladies.
Key Concept: Use a semicolon to avoid confusion when independent clauses or items in a series already contain commas.
Independent Clauses: Abigail Adams, who was descended from a prestigious colonial family, had little formal education; still she was an eager reader.
Items in a series: She read the Bible, philosophy, and poetry; religious sermons and essays; nonfiction, including historical accounts; and she turned to her husband, John, for further instruction.
In the example above, semicolons are used to separate the three major parts of the series.
Complete exercise 30 on page 542. ?s 1-5
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Key Concept: Use a colon before a list of items following an independent clause.
Examples: Dolley Madison entertained all kinds of people: politicians, diplomats, and the general public.
Her husband, James Madison, was many things: congressman, President, and writer of the federalist papers.
Key Concept: Use a colon to introduce a quotation that is formal or lengthy or does not contain a dialogue marker (he said/she said, etc.).
Example: In The Living White House, Rosalynn Carter writes about history in the white house: “I also have found real pleasure in learning the details about the furniture of the federal period.”
Key Concept: Use a colon to introduce a sentence that summarizes or explains the sentence before it.
Example: Mary Todd Lincoln was very active during the Civil War: She visited hospitals, read to the soldiers, wrote them letters, and raised money.
Key Concept: Use a colon to introduce a formal appositive that follows an independent clause.
Appositive: A noun or pronoun placed near another noun or pronoun to identify, rename, or explain it.
Example: Mrs. Lincoln strongly supported the main Union policy: antislavery.
More uses on page 544.
Complete exercise 31 on page 545 and exercise 32 on page 546. ?s 1-5
Exercise 31
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Exercise 32
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Apostrophes
Forming Possessives of Nouns
An apostrophe is used to show possession or ownership.
The location of the apostrophe depends upon the characteristics of the noun.
Key Concept: Add an apostrophe and ‘s’ to show the possessive case of most singular nouns.
Examples:
The book of the girl. The girl’s book.
The crib of the baby The baby’s crib.
Singular nouns ending in ‘s’ require only an apostrophe at the end of the word.
Add an apostrophe to show the possessive case of plural nouns ending in ‘s’ or ‘es.’
Examples:
The shirts of the boys The boys’ shirts.
The figures in the charts The charts’ figures.
Key Concept: Add an apostrophe and an ‘s’ to show the possessive case of plural nouns that do not end in ‘s’ or ‘es.’
Examples:
The suits of the men The men’s suits.
The toys of the children The children’s toys.
Key Concept: Add an apostrophe and an ‘s’ (or just an apostrophe if the word is a plural ending in ‘s’) to the last word of a compound noun.
Compound noun: a compound noun contains two or more words. To form a possessive of a compound noun, use the above rule.
Examples: Harvey and Sons’ electronics
Major and Marker’s baby powder
Key Concept: To form possessives involving time and amounts, use an apostrophe and ‘s’ or just an apostrophe if the possessive is plural.
Time: a month’s vacation; three days’ work
Amount: a dime’s worth; four nickels’ worth
Joint and individual ownership:
Joint ownership: Will and Martin’s dog, a greyhound, has won a number of prizes.
Individual ownership: Susan’s, Marie’s, and Alice’s papers were graded by the teacher.
Complete exercise 71 on page 582. 1-5
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Key Concept: Do NOT use an apostrophe with the possessive forms of personal pronouns.
The possessive forms of personal pronouns (his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, and so on) already show possession. Thus, they do not need apostrophes.
Examples: his old car, that hobby of hers, its tail, that paper of yours
ALL text and example are taken from Prentice Hall Writing and Grammar