Logical Fallacies
Logical fallacies are often used as propaganda techniques. Unfortunately, our lives are filled with lies. Advertisements lie. Politicians lie. Scandalous corporate executives lie. Well, you might say, this is their problem. True. True. BUT, it becomes our problem when we cannot distinguish truth from fallacy. Ah, fallacy. We come to our point. In order to write effective arguments for the A.P. exam, we must be wary of logical fallacies. (We must also be able to spot these fallacies in written and spoken arguments to ensure we do not become mindless sheep, but I digress.) On with the assignment…
1. Ad hominem: (to the man) “Any argument that attempts to counter another’s claims or conclusions by attacking the person, rather than addressing the argument itself.”
Example: If you believe in UFOs, you are crazy.
2. Non sequitur: (does not follow) “An argument in which the conclusion does not necessarily follow the premises…a logical connection is implied where none exists.”
Example: The apartment builder he lives in is enormous; his apartment must be spacious.
3. Post-hoc ergo propter hoc: (after this, therefore because of this) Often called “Post hoc.” “A proceeded B, therefore A caused B, and therefore assumes cause and effect.”
Example: “President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime”
4. Slippery Slope: “The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there’s really not enough evidence for that assumption. The arguer asserts that if we take even on step into the slippery slope, we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom.”
Example: “Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we don’t respect life, we are likely to be more and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon our society will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for their lives.”
5. Red Herring: “Partway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side issue that distracts the audience from what’s really at stake. Often the arguer never returns to the original issue.”
Example: “Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes go more smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.”
6. Begging the Question: “To assume a conclusion in one’s question….”
“Asks the reader to accept the conclusion without providing real evidence; the argument either relies on the premise that says the same thing as the conclusion…or simply ignores an important assumption that the argument rests on…”
Example: “Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape suffering through death.”
Sources:
The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill
The Skeptic’s Guide to the Universe
Purdue Owl Logical Fallacies