Civil War in France

1IV. To Die For the Republic

KarlMarx

TheCivilWarinFrance

Written:July1870-May1871;
FirstPublished:1871;
Source:EnglishEditionof1871;
Transcription/Markup:ZodiacBrianBaggins;
ProofedandcorrectedbyMarkHarris,2010.

WrittenbyKarlMarxasanaddresstotheGeneralCounciloftheInternational,withtheaimofdistributingtoworkersofallcountriesaclearunderstandingofthecharacterandworld-widesignificanceoftheheroicstruggleoftheCommunardsandtheirhistoricalexperiencetolearnfrom.Thebookwaswidelycirculatedby1872itwastranslatedintoseverallanguagesandpublishedthroughoutEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

ThefirstaddresswasdeliveredonJuly23rd,1870,fivedaysafterthebeginningoftheFranco-PrussianWar.Thesecondaddress,deliveredonSeptember9,1870,gaveahistoricaloverviewoftheeventsaweekafterthearmyofBonapartewasdefeated.Thethirdaddress,deliveredonMay30,1871,twodaysafterthedefeatoftheParisCommune–detailedthesignificanceandtheunderliningcausesofthefirstworkersgovernmentevercreated.

PublicationInformation:TheCivilWarinFrancewasoriginallypublishedbyMarxasonlythethirdaddress(herecomprisingChapters3through6)separatedintofourchapters.In1891,onthe20thanniversaryoftheParisCommune,Engelsputtogetheranewcollectionofthework.EngelsdecidedtoincludethefirsttwoaddressesthatMarxmadetotheInternational(Chapters1and2)–inthiswayprovidingadditionalhistoricalbackgroundtotheCivilWar;Marx’saccountoftheFranco-PrussianWar(JulytoSeptember,1870).Inthispublication,basictitleshavebeenprovidedforeachchapterinbrackets,togivetheunfamiliarreaderabasicguidetothehistoricaleventseachchapterdiscusses.Also,Engels1891introductionhasbeenseparatedintotwoparts:anintroduction(below)andapostscript.

TableofContents

1891IntroductionbyFrederickEngelsOnthe20thAnniversaryoftheParisCommune

TheFirstAddressJuly23,1870

TheSecondAddressSeptember9,1870

TheCapitulationofFrance

ParisWorkers’Revolution

TheParisCommune

TheFallofParis

Engels’1891Postscript

1Engels’ 1891 Introduction

1891IntroductionbyFrederickEngelsOnthe20thAnniversaryoftheParisCommune

ThankstotheeconomicandpoliticaldevelopmentofFrancesince[theFrenchRevolutionof]1789,for50yearsthepositionofParishasbeensuchthatnorevolutionscouldbreakouttherewithoutassumingaproletariancharacter,thatistosay,theproletariat,whichhadboughtvictorywithitsblood,wouldadvanceitsowndemandsaftervictory.Thesedemandsweremoreorlessunclearandevenconfused,correspondingtothestateofevolutionreachedbytheworkersofParisattheparticularperiod,butinthelastresorttheyallamountedtotheabolitionoftheclassantagonismbetweencapitalistandworkers.Itistruethatnooneknewhowthiswastobebroughtabout.Butthedemanditself,howeverindefiniteitstillwasinitsformulation,containedathreattotheexistingorderofsociety;theworkerswhoputitforwardwerestillarmed;thereforethedisarmingoftheworkerswasthefirstcommandmentforthebourgeoisatthehelmofthestate.Hence,aftereveryrevolutionwonbytheworkers,anewstruggle,endingwiththedefeatoftheworkers.

Thishappenedforthefirsttimein1848.Theliberalbourgeoisieoftheparliamentaryoppositionheldbanquetsforsecuringreformofthefranchise,whichwastoensuresupremacyfortheirparty.Forcedmoreandmore,intheirstrugglewiththegovernment,toappealtothepeople,theyhadtoallowtheradicalandrepublicanstrataofthebourgeoisieandpettybourgeoisiegraduallytotakethelead.Butbehindthesestoodtherevolutionaryworkers,andsince1830,[1]thesehadacquiredfarmorepoliticalindependencethanthebourgeoisie,andeventherepublicans,suspected.Atthemomentofthecrisisbetweenthegovernmentandtheopposition,theworkersopenedbattleonthestreets;[King]LouisPhilippevanished,andwithhimthefranchisereform;andinitsplacearosetherepublic,andindeedonewhichthevictoriousworkersthemselvesdesignatedasa “social” republic.Noone,however,wasclearastowhatthissocialrepublicwastoimply;noteventheworkersthemselves.Buttheynowhadarmsintheirhands,andwereapowerinthestate.Therefore,assoonasthebourgeoisrepublicansincontrolfeltsomethinglikefirmgroundundertheirfeet,theirfirstaimwastodisarmtheworkers.ThistookplacebydrivingthemintotheinsurrectionofJune1848bydirectbreachoffaith,byopendefianceandtheattempttobanishtheunemployedtoadistantprovince.Thegovernmenthadtakencaretohaveanoverwhelmingsuperiorityofforce.Afterfivedays’heroicstruggle,theworkersweredefeated.Andthenfollowedablood-bathofthedefencelessprisoners,thelikesofwhichasnotbeenseensincethedaysofthecivilwarswhichusheredinthedownfalloftheRomanrepublic.Itwasthefirsttimethatthebourgeoisieshowedtowhatinsanecrueltiesofrevengeitwillbegoadedthemomenttheproletariatdarestotakeitsstandagainstthemasaseparateclass,withitsowninterestsanddemands.Andyet1848wasonlychild’splaycomparedwiththeirfrenzyin1871.

Punishmentfollowedhardatheel.IftheproletariatwasnotyetabletoruleFrance,thebourgeoisiecouldnolongerdoso.Atleastnotatthatperiod,whenthegreaterpartofitwasstillmonarchicallyinclined,anditwasdividedintothreedynasticparties[Legitimists,OrleanistsandBonapartists]andafourthrepublicanparty.ItsinternaldissensionsallowedtheadventurerLouisBonapartetotakepossessionofallthecommandingpoints–army,police,administrativemachinery–and,onDecember2,1851,[2]toexplodethelaststrongholdofthebourgeoisie,theNationalAssembly.TheSecondEmpireopenedtheexploitationofFrancebyagangofpoliticalandfinancialadventurers,butatthesametimealsoanindustrialdevelopmentsuchashadneverbeenpossibleunderthenarrow-mindedandtimoroussystemofLouisPhilippe,withitsexclusivedominationbyonlyasmallsectionofthebigbourgeoisie.LouisBonapartetookthepoliticalpowerfromthecapitalistsunderthepretextofprotectingthem,thebourgeoisie,fromtheworkers,andontheotherhandtheworkersfromthem;butinreturnhisruleencouragedspeculationandindustrialactivity–inawordtheriseandenrichmentofthewholebourgeoisietoanextenthithertounknown.Toanevengreaterextent,itistrue,corruptionandmassrobberydeveloped,clusteringaroundtheimperialcourt,anddrawingtheirheavypercentagesfromthisenrichment.

ButtheSecondEmpirewastheappealtotheFrenchchauvinism,thedemandfortherestorationofthefrontiersoftheFirstEmpire,whichhadbeenlostin1814,oratleastthoseoftheFirstRepublic.[3]AFrenchempirewithinthefrontiersoftheoldmonarchyand,infact,withintheevenmoreamputatedfrontiersof1815–suchathingwasimpossibleforanylongdurationoftime.Hencethenecessityforbriefwarsandextensionoffrontiers.ButnoextensionoffrontierswassodazzlingtotheimaginationoftheFrenchchauvinistsastheextensiontotheGermanleftbankoftheRhine.OnesquaremileontheRhinewasmoretothemthantenintheAlpsoranywhereelse.GiventheSecondEmpire,thedemandfortherestorationtoFranceoftheleftbankoftheRhine,eitherallatonceorpiecemeal,wasmerelyaquestionoftime.ThetimecamewiththeAustro-PrussianWarof1866;cheatedoftheanticipated “territorialcompensation” byBismarck,andbyhisownover-cunning,hesitatingpolicy,therewasnownothingleftforNapoleonbutwar,whichbrokeoutin1870anddrovehimfirsttoSedan,andthentoWilhelmshohe[prison].

TheinevitableresultwastheParisRevolutionofSeptember4,1870.Theempirecollapsedlikeahouseofcards,andtherepublicwasagainproclaimed.Buttheenemywasstandingatthegates[ofParis];thearmiesoftheempirewereeitherhopelesslybeleagueredinMetzorheldcaptiveinGermany.InthisemergencythepeopleallowedtheParisDeputiestotheformerlegislativebodytoconstitutethemselvesintoa “GovernmentofNationalDefence.” Thiswasthemorereadilyconceded,since,forthepurposeofdefence,allParisianscapableofbearingarmshadenrolledintheNationalGuardandwerearmed,sothatnowtheworkersconstitutedagreatmajority.Butalmostatoncetheantagonismbetweenthealmostcompletelybourgeoisgovernmentandthearmedproletariatbrokeintoopenconflict.OnOctober31,workers’battalionsstormedthetownhall,andcapturedsomemembersofthegovernment.Treachery,thegovernment’sdirectbreachofitsundertakings,andtheinterventionsofsomepetty-bourgeoisbattalionssetthemfreeagain,andinordernottooccasiontheoutbreakofcivilwarinsideacitywhichwasalreadybeleagueredbyaforeignpower,theformergovernmentwasleftinoffice.

AtlastonJanuary28,1871,Paris,almoststarving,capitulatedbutwithhonorsunprecedentedinthehistoryofwar.Thefortsweresurrendered,theouterwalldisarmed,theweaponsoftheregimentsofthelineandoftheMobileGuardwerehandedover,andtheythemselvesconsideredprisonersofwar.ButtheNationalGuardkeptitsweaponsandguns,andonlyenteredintoanarmisticewiththevictors,whothemselvesdidnotdareenterParisintriumph.TheyonlydaredtooccupyatinycornerofParis,which,intothebargain,consistedpartlyofpublicparks,andeventhistheyonlyoccupiedforafewdays!Andduringthistimethey,whohadmaintainedtheirencirclementofParisfor131days,werethemselvesencircledbythearmedworkersofParis,whokeptasharpwatchthatno “Prussian” shouldoverstepthenarrowboundsofthecornercededtotheforeignconquerors.SuchwastherespectwhichtheParisworkersinspiredinthearmybeforewhichallthearmiesoftheempirehadlaiddowntheirarms;andthePrussianJunkers,whohadcometotakerevengeattheverycentreoftherevolution,werecompelledtostandbyrespectfully,andsalutejustpreciselythisarmedrevolution!

DuringthewartheParisworkershadconfinedthemselvestodemandingthevigorousprosecutionofthefight.Butnow,whenpeacehadcomeafterthecapitulationofParis,[4]now,Thiers,thenewheadofgovernment,wascompelledtorealizethatthesupremacyofthepropertiedclasses–largelandownersandcapitalists–wasinconstantdangersolongastheworkersofParishadarmsintheirhands.Hisfirstactionwastoattempttodisarmthem.OnMarch18,hesenttroopsofthelinewithorderstorobtheNationalGuardoftheartillerybelongingtoit,whichhadbeenconstructedduringthesiegeofParisandhadbeenpaidforbypublicsubscription.Theattemptfailed;Parismobilizedasonemanindefenceoftheguns,andwarbetweenParisandtheFrenchgovernmentsittingatVersailleswasdeclared.OnMarch26theParisCommunewaselectedandonMarch28itwasproclaimed.TheCentralCommitteeoftheNationalGuard,whichuptothenhadcarriedonthegovernment,handedinitsresignationtotheNationalGuard,afterithadfirstdecreedtheabolitionofthescandalousParis “MoralityPolice.” OnMarch30theCommuneabolishedconscriptionandthestandingarmy,anddeclaredthattheNationalGuard,inwhichallcitizenscapableofbearingarmsweretobeenrolled,wastobethesolearmedforce.ItremittedallpaymentsofrentfordwellinghousesfromOctober1870untilApril,theamountsalreadypaidtobereckonedtoafuturerentalperiod,andstoppedallsalesofarticlespledgedinthemunicipalpawnshops.OnthesamedaytheforeignerselectedtotheCommunewereconfirmedinoffice,because “theflagoftheCommuneistheflagoftheWorldRepublic.”

OnApril1itwasdecidedthatthehighestsalaryreceivedbyanyemployeeoftheCommune,andthereforealsobyitsmembersthemselves,mightnotexceed6,000francs.OnthefollowingdaytheCommunedecreedtheseparationoftheChurchfromtheState,andtheabolitionofallstatepaymentsforreligiouspurposesaswellasthetransformationofallChurchpropertyintonationalproperty;asaresultofwhich,onApril8,adecreeexcludingfromtheschoolsallreligioussymbols,pictures,dogmas,prayers–inaword, “allthatbelongstothesphereoftheindividual’sconscience” –wasorderedtobeexcludedfromtheschools,andthisdecreewasgraduallyapplied.Onthe5th,inreplytotheshooting,dayafterday,oftheCommune’sfighterscapturedbytheVersaillestroops,adecreewasissuedforimprisonmentofhostages,butitwasnevercarriedintoeffect.Onthe6th,theguillotinewasbroughtoutbythe137thbattalionoftheNationalGuard,andpubliclyburnt,amidgreatpopularrejoicing.Onthe12th,theCommunedecidedthattheVictoryColumnonthePlaceVendôme,whichhadbeencastfromgunscapturedbyNapoleonafterthewarof1809,shouldbedemolishedasasymbolofchauvinismandincitementtonationalhatred.ThisdecreewascarriedoutonMay16.OnApril16theCommuneorderedastatisticaltabulationoffactorieswhichhadbeencloseddownbythemanufacturers,andtheworkingoutofplansforthecarryingonofthesefactoriesbyworkersformerlyemployedinthem,whoweretobeorganizedinco-operativesocieties,andalsoplansfortheorganizationoftheseco-operativesinonegreatunion.Onthe20ththeCommuneabolishednightworkforbakers,andalsotheworkers’registrationcards,whichsincetheSecondEmpirehadbeenrunasamonopolybypolicenominees–exploitersofthefirstrank;theissuingoftheseregistrationcardswastransferredtothemayorsofthe20arrondissementsofParis.OnApril30,theCommuneorderedtheclosingofthepawnshops,onthegroundthattheywereaprivateexploitationoflabor,andwereincontradictionwiththerightoftheworkerstotheirinstrumentsoflaborandtocredit.OnMay5itorderedthedemolitionoftheChapelofAtonement,whichhadbeenbuiltinexpiationoftheexecutionofLouisXVI.

Thus,fromMarch18onwardstheclasscharacteroftheParismovement,whichhadpreviouslybeenpushedintothebackgroundbythefightagainsttheforeigninvaders,emergedsharplyandclearly.Asalmostwithoutexception,workers,orrecognizedrepresentativesoftheworkers,satintheCommune,itsdecisionboreadecidedlyproletariancharacter.Eithertheydecreedreformswhichtherepublicanbourgeoisiehadfailedtopasssolelyoutofcowardice,butwhichprovidedanecessarybasisforthefreeactivityoftheworkingclass–suchastherealizationoftheprinciplethatinrelationtothestate,religionisapurelyprivatematter–ortheypromulgateddecreeswhichwereinthedirectinterestsoftheworkingclassandtosomeextentcutdeeplyintotheoldorderofsociety.Inabeleagueredcity,however,itwaspossibleatmosttomakeastartintherealizationofallthesemeasures.AndfromthebeginningofMayonwardsalltheirenergiesweretakenupbythefightagainsttheever-growingarmiesassembledbytheVersaillesgovernment.

OnApril7,theVersaillestroopshadcapturedtheSeinecrossingatNeuilly,onthewesternfrontofParis;ontheotherhand,inanattackonthesouthernfrontonthe11ththeywererepulsedwithheavylossesbyGeneralEudes.Pariswascontinuallybombardedand,moreover,bytheverypeoplewhohadstigmatizedasasacrilegethebombardmentofthesamecitybythePrussians.ThesesamepeoplenowbeggedthePrussiangovernmentforthehastyreturnoftheFrenchsoldierstakenprisoneratSedanandMetz,inorderthattheymightrecaptureParisforthem.FromthebeginningofMaythegradualarrivalofthesetroopsgavetheVersaillesforcesadecidedascendancy.Thisalreadybecameevidentwhen,onApril23,Thiersbrokeoffthenegotiationsfortheexchange,proposedbyCommune,oftheArchbishopofParis[GeorgesDarboy]andawholenumberofotherpriestsheldhostagesinParis,foronlyoneman,Blanqui,whohadtwicebeenelectedtotheCommunebutwasaprisonerinClairvaux.AndevenmorefromthechangedlanguageofThiers;previouslyprocrastinatingandequivocal,henowsuddenlybecameinsolent,threatening,brutal.TheVersaillesforcestooktheredoubtofMoulinSaquetonthesouthernfront,onMay3;onthe9th,FortIssy,whichhadbeencompletelyreducedtoruinsbygunfire;andonthe14th,FortVanves.Onthewesternfronttheyadvancedgradually,capturingthenumerousvillagesandbuildingswhichextendeduptothecitywall,untiltheyreachedthemainwallitself;onthe21st,thankstotreacheryandthecarelessnessoftheNationalGuardsstationedthere,theysucceededinforcingtheirwayintothecity.ThePrussianswhoheldthenorthernandeasternfortsallowedtheVersaillestroopstoadvanceacrossthelandnorthofthecity,whichwasforbiddengroundtothemunderthearmistice,andthustomarchforwardandattackonalongfront,whichtheParisiansnaturallythoughtcoveredbythearmistice,andthereforeheldonlywithweakforces.Asaresultofthis,onlyaweakresistancewasputupinthewesternhalfofParis,intheluxurycityproper;itgrewstrongerandmoretenaciousthenearertheincomingtroopsapproachedtheeasternhalf,therealworkingclasscity.

Itwasonlyaftereightdays’fightingthatthelastdefenderoftheCommunewereoverwhelmedontheheightsofBellevilleandMenilmontant;andthenthemassacreofdefencelessmen,women,andchildren,whichhadbeenragingallthroughtheweekonanincreasingscale,reacheditszenith.Thebreechloaderscouldnolongerkillfastenough;thevanquishedworkerswereshotdowninhundredbymitrailleusefire[over30,000citizensofParisweremassacred].The “WalloftheFederals” [akaWalloftheCommunards]atthePereLachaisecemetery,wherethefinalmassmurderwasconsummated,isstillstandingtoday,amutebuteloquenttestimonytothesavageryofwhichtherulingclassiscapableassoonastheworkingclassdarestocomeoutforitsrights.Thencamethemassarrests[38,000workersarrested];whentheslaughterofthemallprovedtobeimpossible,theshootingofvictimsarbitrarilyselectedfromtheprisoners’ranks,andtheremovaloftheresttogreatcampswheretheyawaitedtrialbycourts-martial.ThePrussiantroopssurroundingthenorthernhalfofParishadordersnottoallowanyfugitivestopass;buttheofficersoftenshuttheireyeswhenthesoldierspaidmoreobediencetothedictatesofhumanitythantothoseoftheGeneralStaff;particularly,honorisduetotheSaxonarmycorps,whichbehavedveryhumanelyandletthroughmanyworkerswhowereobviouslyfightersfortheCommune.

FrederickEngels

London,onthe20thanniversaryoftheParisCommune,March18,1891.

1The Beginning of the Franco-Prussian War

TheFirstAddressJuly23,1870

IntheInauguralAddressoftheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociation,ofNovember1864,wesaid:

“Iftheemancipationoftheworkingclassesrequirestheirfraternalconcurrence,howaretheytofulfillthatgreatmissionwithaforeignpolicyinpursuitofcriminaldesigns,playinguponnationalprejudices,andsquanderinginpiraticalwarsthepeople’sbloodandtreasure?”

WedefinedtheforeignpolicyaimedatbytheInternationalinthesewords:

“Vindicatethesimplelawsofmoralsandjustice,whichoughttogoverntherelationsofprivateindividuals,asthelawsparamountoftheintercourseofnations.”

NowonderthatLouisBonaparte,whousurpedpowerbyexploitingthewarofclassesinFrance,andperpetuateditbyperiodicalwarsabroad,should,fromthefirst,havetreatedtheInternationalasadangerousfoe.Ontheeveoftheplebiscite[5]heorderedaraidonthemembersoftheAdministrativeCommitteeoftheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociationthroughoutFrance,atParis,Lyons,Rouen,Marseilles,Brest,etc.,onthepretextthattheInternationalwasasecretsocietydabblinginacomplotforhisassassination,apretextsoonafterexposedinitsfullabsurditybyhisownjudges.WhatwastherealcrimeoftheFrenchbranchesoftheInternational?TheytoldtheFrenchpeoplepubliclyandemphaticallythatvotingtheplebiscitewasvotingdespotismathomeandwarabroad.Ithasbeen,infact,theirworkthatinallthegreattowns,inalltheindustrialcentresofFrance,theworkingclassroselikeonemantorejecttheplebiscite.Unfortunately,thebalancewasturnedbytheheavyignoranceoftheruraldistricts.Thestockexchanges,thecabinets,therulingclasses,andthepressofEuropecelebratedtheplebisciteasasignalvictoryoftheFrenchemperorovertheFrenchworkingclass;anditwasthesignalfortheassassination,notofanindividual,butofnations.

ThewarplotofJuly[19]1870[6]isbutanamendededitionofthecoupd’etatofDecember1851.Atfirstview,thethingseemedsoabsurdthatFrancewouldnotbelieveinitsrealgoodearnest.Itratherbelievedthedeputydenouncingtheministerialwartalkasamerestock-jobbingtrick.When,onJuly15,warwasatlastofficiallyannouncedtotheCorpsLegislatif,thewholeOppositionrefusedtovotethepreliminarysubsidies–evenThiersbrandeditas “detestable”;alltheindependentjournalsofPariscondemnedit,and,wonderfultorelate,theprovincialpressjoinedinalmostunanimously.

Meanwhile,theParismembersoftheInternationalhadagainsettowork.IntheReveilofJuly12,theypublishedtheirmanifesto “totheWorkmenofallNations,” fromwhichweextractthefollowingfewpassages:

“Oncemore,” theysay, “onthepretextofEuropeanequilibrium,ofnationalhonor,thepeaceoftheworldismenacedbypoliticalambitions.French,German,Spanishworkmen!Letourvoicesuniteinonecryofreprobationagainstwar!

[...]

“Warforaquestionofpreponderanceoradynastycan,intheeyesofworkmen,benothingbutacriminalabsurdity.Inanswertothewarlikeproclamationsofthosewhoexemptthemselvesfromthebloodtax,andfindinpublicmisfortunesasourceoffreshspeculations,weprotest,wewhowantpeace,labor,andliberty!

[...]

“BrothersinGermany!OurdivisionwouldonlyresultinthecompletetriumphofthedespotismonbothsidesoftheRhine...

“Workmenofallcountries!Whatevermayforthepresentbecomeofourcommonefforts,we,themembersoftheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociation,whoknowofnofrontiers,wesendyou,asapledgeofindissolublesolidarity,thegoodwishesandthesalutationsoftheworkmenofFrance.”

ThismanifestoofourParissectionwasfollowedbynumeroussimilarFrenchaddresses,ofwhichwecanhereonlyquotethedeclarationofNeuilly-sur-Seine,publishedintheMarseillaiseofJuly22:

“Thewar,isitjust?No!Thewar,isitnational?No!Itismerelydynastic.Inthenameofhumanity,ordemocracy,andthetrueinterestsofFrance,weadherecompletelyandenergeticallytotheprotestationoftheInternationalagainstthewar.”

TheseprotestationsexpressedthetruesentimentsoftheFrenchworkingpeople,aswassoonshownbyacuriousincident.TheBandofthe10thofDecember,firstorganizedunderthepresidencyofLouisBonaparte,havingbeenmasqueradedintoblouses[i.e.,toappearascommonworkers]andletlooseonthestreetsofParis,theretoperformthecontortionsofwarfever,therealworkmenoftheFaubourgs[suburbs,workers’districts]cameforwardwithpublicpeacedemonstrationssooverwhelmingthatPietri,thePrefectofPolice,thoughtitprudenttostopatonceallfurtherstreetpolitics,onthepleathattherealParispeoplehadgivensufficientventtotheirpent-uppatriotismandexuberantwarenthusiasm.

WhatevermaybetheincidentsofLouisBonaparte’swarwithPrussia,thedeath-knelloftheSecondEmpirehasalreadysoundedatParis.Itwillend,asitbegan,byaparody.ButletusnotforgetthatitisthegovernmentsandtherulingclassesofEuropewhoenabledLouisBonapartetoplayduring18yearstheferociousfarceoftheRestoredEmpire.

OntheGermanside,thewarisawarofdefence;butwhoputGermanytothenecessityofdefendingherself?WhoenabledLouisBonapartetowagewaruponher?Prussia!ItwasBismarckwhoconspiredwiththatverysameLouisBonaparteforthepurposeofcrushingpopularoppositionathome,andannexingGermanytotheHohenzollerndynasty.IfthebattleofSadowahadbeenlostinsteadofbeingwon,FrenchbattalionswouldhaveoverrunGermanyasthealliesofPrussia.Afterhervictory,didPrussiadreamonemomentofopposingafreeGermanytoanenslavedFrance?Justthecontrary.Whilecarefullypreservingallthenativebeautiesofheroldsystem,shesuper-addedallthetricksoftheSecondEmpire,itsrealdespotism,anditsmockdemocratism,itspoliticalshamsanditsfinancialjobs,itshigh-flowntalkanditslowlegerdemains.TheBonapartistregime,whichtillthenonlyflourishedononesideoftheRhine,hadnowgotitscounterfeitontheother.Fromsuchastateofthings,whatelsecouldresultbutwar?

IftheGermanworkingclassallowsthepresentwartoloseitsstrictlydefensivecharacterandtodegenerateintoawaragainsttheFrenchpeople,victoryofdefeatwillprovealikedisastrous.AllthemiseriesthatbefellGermanyafterherwarsofindependencewillrevivewithaccumulatedintensity.

TheprinciplesoftheInternationalare,however,toowidelyspreadandtoofirmlyrootedamongsttheGermanworkingclasstoapprehendsuchasadconsummation.ThevoicesoftheFrenchworkmenhadre-echoedfromGermany.Amassmeetingofworkmen,heldatBrunswickonJuly16,expresseditsfullconcurrencewiththeParismanifesto,spurnedtheideaofnationalantagonismtoFrance,andwoundupitsresolutionswiththesewords:

“Wearetheenemiesofallwars,butaboveallofdynasticwars....Withdeepsorrowandgriefweareforcedtoundergoadefensivewarasanunavoidableevil;butwecall,atthesametime,uponthewholeGermanworkingclasstorendertherecurrenceofsuchanimmensesocialmisfortuneimpossiblebyvindicatingforthepeoplesthemselvesthepowertodecideonpeaceandwar,andmakingthemmastersoftheirowndestinies.”

AtChemnitz,ameetingofdelegates,representing50,000Saxonworkmen,adoptedunanimouslyaresolutiontothiseffect:

“InthenameofGermanDemocracy,andespeciallyoftheworkmenformingtheDemocraticSocialistParty,wedeclarethepresentwartobeexclusivelydynastic....WearehappytograspthefraternalhandstretchedouttousbytheworkmenofFrance....MindfulofthewatchwordoftheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociation:Proletariansofallcountries,unite,weshallneverforgetthattheworkmenofallcountriesareourfriendsandthedespotsofallcountriesourenemies.”

TheBerlinbranchoftheInternationalhasalsorepliedtotheParismanifesto:

“We,” theysay, “joinwithheartandhandyourprotestation....Solemnly,wepromisethatneitherthesoundofthetrumpets,northeroarofthecannon,neithervictorynordefeat,shalldivertusfromourcommonworkfortheunionofthechildrenoftoilofallcountries.”

Beitso!

InthebackgroundofthissuicidalstrikeloomsthedarkfigureofRussia.ItisanominoussignthatthesignalforthepresentwarshouldhavebeengivenatthemomentwhentheMoscovitegovernmenthadjustfinisheditsstrategiclinesofrailwayandwasalreadymassingtroopsinthedirectionofthePrut.[7]WhateversympathytheGermansmayjustlyclaiminawarofdefenseagainstBonapartistaggression,theywouldforfeitatoncebyallowingthePrussiangovernmenttocallfor,oracceptthehelpof,theCossack.LetthemrememberthataftertheirwarofindependenceagainstthefirstNapoleon,Germanylayforgenerationsprostrateatthefeetofthetsar.

TheEnglishworkingclassstretchthehandoffellowshiptotheFrenchandGermanworkingpeople.Theyfeeldeeplyconvincedthatwhateverturntheimpendinghorridwarmaytake,theallianceoftheworkingclassesofallcountrieswillultimatelykillwar.TheveryfactthatwhileofficialFranceandGermanyarerushingintoafratricidalfeud,theworkmenofFranceandGermanysendeachothermessagesofpeaceandgoodwill;thisgreatfact,unparalleledinthehistoryofthepast,opensthevistaofabrighterfuture.Itprovesthatincontrasttooldsociety,withitseconomicalmiseriesanditspoliticaldelirium,anewsocietyisspringingup,whoseInternationalrulewillbePeace,becauseitsnationalrulerwillbeeverywherethesame–Labour!ThepioneerofthatnewsocietyistheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociation.

1Prussian Occupation of France

TheSecondAddressSeptember9,1870

Inourfirstmanifestoofthe23rdofJuly,wesaid:

“Thedeath-knelloftheSecondEmpirehasalreadysoundedatParis.Itwillend,asitbegan,byaparody.ButletusnotforgetthatitisthegovernmentsandtherulingclassesofEuropewhoenabledLouisBonapartetoplayduring18yearstheferociousfarceoftheRestoredEmpire.”

Thus,evenbeforewaroperationshadactuallysetin,wetreatedtheBonapartistbubbleasathingofthepast.

IfwewerenotmistakenastothevitalityoftheSecondEmpire,wewerenotwronginourapprehensionlesttheGermanwarshould “loseitsstrictlydefensivecharacteranddegenerateintoawaragainsttheFrenchpeople.” Thewarofdefenseended,inpointoffact,withthesurrenderofLouisBonaparte,theSedancapitulation,andtheproclamationoftherepublicatParis.Butlongbeforetheseevents,theverymomentthattheutterrottennessoftheimperialistarmsbecameevident,thePrussianmilitarycamarillahadresolveduponconquest.Therelayanuglyobstacleintheirway–[Prussian]KingWilliam’sownproclamationsatthecommencementofthewar.

InaspeechfromthethronetotheNorthGermanDiet,hehadsolemnlydeclaredtomakewarupontheemperoroftheFrenchandnotupontheFrenchnation,wherehesaid:

“TheEmperorNapoleonhavingmadebylandandseaanattackontheGermannation,whichdesiredandstilldesirestoliveinpeacewiththeFrenchpeople,IhaveassumedthecommandoftheGermanarmiestorepelhisaggression,andIhavebeenledbymilitaryeventstocrossthefrontiersofFrance.”

NotcontenttoassertthedefensivecharacterofthewarbythestatementthatheonlyassumedthecommandoftheGermanarmies “torepelaggression”,headdedthathewasonly “ledbymilitaryevents” tocrossthefrontiersofFrance.Adefensivewardoes,ofcourse,notexcludeoffensiveoperations,dictatedbymilitaryevents.

Thus,thepiouskingstoodpledgedbeforeFranceandtheworldtoastrictlydefensivewar.Howtoreleasehimfromhissolemnpledge?ThestagemanagershadtoexhibithimasreluctantlyyieldingtotheirresistiblebehestoftheGermannation.TheyatoncegavethecuetotheliberalGermanmiddleclass,withitsprofessors,itscapitalists,itsaldermen,anditspenmen.Thatmiddleclass,which,initsstrugglesforcivilliberty,had,from1846to1870,beenexhibitinganunexampledspectacleofirresolution,incapacityandcowardice,felt,ofcourse,highlydelightedtobestridetheEuropeansceneastheroaringlionofGermanpatriotism.Itre-vindicateditscivicindependencebyaffectingtoforceuponthePrussiangovernmentthesecretdesignsofthatsamegovernment.Itdoespenanceforitslong-continued,andalmostreligious,faithinLouisBonaparte’sinfallibility,butshoutingforthedismembermentoftheFrenchrepublic.Letus,foramoment,listentothespecialpleadingsofthosestout-heartedpatriots!

TheydarenotpretendthatthepeopleofAlsaceandLorrainepantfortheGermanembrace;quitethecontrary.TopunishtheirFrenchpatriotism,Strasbourg,atownwithanindependentcitadelcommandingit,hasforsixdaysbeenwantonlyandfiendishlybombardedby “German” explosiveshells,settingitonfire,andkillinggreatnumbersofitsdefencelessinhabitants!Yet,thesoilofthoseprovincesonceuponatimebelongedtothewhilomGermanempire.[8]Hence,itseems,thesoilandthehumanbeingsgrownonitmustbeconfiscatedasimprescriptibleGermanproperty.IfthemapofEuropeistobere-madeintheantiquary’svein,letusbynomeansforgetthattheElectorofBrandenburg,forhisPrussiandominions,wasthevassalofthePolishrepublic.[9]

Themoreknowingpatriots,however,requireAlsaceandtheGerman-speakingLorraineasa “materialguarantee” againstFrenchaggression.Asthiscontemptiblepleahasbewilderedmanyweak-mindedpeople,weareboundtoentermorefullyuponit.

ThereisnodoubtthatthegeneralconfigurationofAlsace,ascomparedwiththeoppositebankoftheRhine,andthepresenceofalargefortifiedtownlikeStrasbourg,abouthalfwaybetweenBasleandGermersheim,verymuchfavouraFrenchinvasionofSouthGermany,whiletheyofferpeculiardifficultiestoaninvasionofFrancefromSouthGermany.Thereis,further,nodoubtthattheadditionofAlsaceandGerman-speakingLorrainewouldgiveSouthGermanyamuchstrongerfrontier,inasmuchasshewouldthenbethemasterofthecrestoftheVosgesmountainsinitswholelength,andofthefortresseswhichcoveritsnorthernpasses.IfMetzwereannexedaswell,FrancewouldcertainlyforthemomentbedeprivedofhertwoprincipalbasesofoperationagainstGermany,butthatwouldnotpreventherfromconcentratingafreshoneatNancyorVerdun.WhileGermanyownsCoblenz,Mayence[i.e.,Mainz],Germersheim,Rastatt,andUlm,allbasesofoperationagainstFrance,andplentifullymadeuseofinthiswar,withwhatshowoffairplaycanshebegrudgeFranceStrasbourgandMetz,theonlytwofortressesofanyimportanceshehasonthatside?Moreover,StrasbourgendangersSouthGermanyonlywhileSouthGermanyisaseparatepowerfromNorthGermany.From1792to1795,SouthGermanywasneverinvadedfromthatdirection,becausePrussiawasapartytothewaragainsttheFrenchRevolution;butassoonasPrussiamadeapeaceofherown[10]in1795,andlefttheSouthtoshiftforitself,theinvasionsofSouthGermanywithStrasbourgasabasebeganandcontinuedtill1809.Thefactis,aunitedGermanycanalwaysrenderStrasbourgandanyFrencharmyinAlsaceinnocuousbyconcentratingallhertroops,aswasdoneinthepresentwar,betweenSaarlouisandLandau,andadvancing,oracceptingbattle,onthelineofroadbetweenMayenceandMetz.WhilethemassoftheGermantroopsisstationedthere,anyFrencharmyadvancingfromStrasbourgintoSouthGermanywouldbeoutflanked,andhaveitscommunicationthreatened.Ifthepresentcampaignhasprovedanything,itisthefacilityofinvadingFrancefromGermany.

But,ingoodfaith,isitnotaltogetheranabsurdityandananachronismtomakemilitaryconsiderationstheprinciplebywhichtheboundariesofnationsaretobefixed?Ifthisruleweretoprevail,AustriawouldstillbeentitledtoVenetiaandthelineoftheMinicio,andFrancetothelineoftheRhine,inordertoprotectParis,whichliescertainlymoreopentoanattackfromthenortheastthanBerlindoesfromthesouthwest.Iflimitsaretobefixedbymilitaryinterests,therewillbenoendtoclaims,becauseeverymilitarylineisnecessarilyfaulty,andmaybeimprovedbyannexingsomemoreoutlyingterritory;and,moreover,theycanneverbefixedfinallyandfairly,becausetheyalwaysmustbeimposedbytheconquerorupontheconquered,andconsequentlycarrywithinthemtheseedoffreshwars.

Suchisthelessonofallhistory.

Thuswithnationsaswithindividuals.Todeprivethemofthepowerofoffence,youmustdeprivethemofthemeansofdefence.Youmustnotonlygarrote,butmurder.Ifeveryconquerortook “materialguarantees” forbreakingthesinewsofanation,thefirstNapoleondidsobytheTilsitTreaty,andthewayheexecuteditagainstPrussiaandtherestofGermany.Yet,afewyearslater,hisgiganticpowersplitlikearottenreedupontheGermanpeople.Whatarethe “materialguarantees” Prussia,inherwildestdreams,canordareimposesuponFrance,comparedtothe “materialguarantees” thefirstNapoleonhadwrenchedfromherself?Theresultwillnotprovethelessdisastrous.Historywillmeasureitsretribution,notbytheintensityofthesquaremilesconqueredfromFrance,butbytheintensityofthecrimeofreviving,inthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,thepolicyofconquest!

But,saythemouthpiecesofTeutonic[German]patriotism,youmustnotconfoundGermanswithFrenchmen.Whatwewantisnotglory,butsafety.TheGermansareanessentiallypeacefulpeople.Intheirsoberguardianship,conquestitselfchangesfromaconditionoffuturewarintoapledgeofperpetualpeace.Ofcourse,itisnotGermansthatinvadedFrancein1792,forthesublimepurposeofbayonettingtherevolutionofthe18thcentury.ItisnotGermansthatbefouledtheirhandsbythesubjugationofItaly,theoppressionsofHungary,andthedismembermentofPoland.Theirpresentmilitarysystem,whichdividesthewholeable-bodiedmalepopulationintotwoparts–onestandingarmyonservice,andanotherstandingarmyonfurlough,bothequallyboundinpassiveobediencetorulersbydivineright–suchamilitarysystemis,ofcourse, “amaterialguarantee,” forkeepingthepeaceandtheultimategoalofcivilizingtendencies!InGermany,aseverywhereelse,thesycophantsofthepowersthatbepoisonthepopularmindbytheincenseofmendaciousself-praise.

IndignantastheypretendtobeatthesightofFrenchfortressesinMetzandStrasbourg,thoseGermanpatriotsseenoharminthevastsystemofMoscovitefortificationsatWarsaw,Modlin,andIvangorod[AllstrongholdsoftheRussianEmpire].Whilegloatingattheterrorsofimperialistinvasion,theyblinkattheinfamyofautocratictutelage.

Asin1865,promiseswereexchangedbetweenGorchakovandBismarck.AsLouisBonaparteflatteredhimselfthattheWarof1866,resultinginthecommonexhaustionofAustriaandPrussia,wouldmakehimthesupremearbiterofGermany,soAlexander[IIofRussia]flatteredhimselfthattheWarof1870,resultinginthecommonexhaustionofGermanyandFrance,wouldmakehimthesupremearbiteroftheWesterncontinent.AstheSecondEmpirethoughttheNorthGermanConfederationincompatiblewithitsexistence,soautocraticRussiamustthinkherselfendangeredbyaGermanempireunderPrussianleadership.Suchisthelawoftheoldpoliticalsystem.Withinitspalethegainofonestateisthelossoftheother.Thetsar’sparamountinfluenceoverEuroperootsinhistraditionalholdonGermany.AtamomentwheninRussiaherselfvolcanicsocialagenciesthreatentoshaketheverybaseofautocracy,couldthetsaraffordtobearwithsuchalossofforeignprestige?AlreadytheMoscovitejournalsrepeatthelanguageoftheBonapartistjournalsoftheWarof1866.DotheTeutonpatriotsreallybelievethatlibertyandpeacewillbeguaranteedtoGermanybyforcingFranceintothearmsofRussia?Ifthefortuneofherarms,thearroganceofsuccess,anddynasticintrigueleadGermanytoadismembermentofFrenchterritory,therewillthenonlyremaintwocoursesopentoher.ShemustatallrisksbecometheavowedtoolofRussianaggrandizement,or,aftersomeshortrespite,makeagainreadyforanother “defensive” war,notoneofthosenew-fangled “localized” wars,butawarofraces–awarwiththeSlavonicandRomanraces.[11]

TheGermanworkingclasshaveresolutelysupportedthewar,whichitwasnotintheirpowertoprevent,asawarforGermanindependenceandtheliberationofFranceandEuropefromthatpestilentialincubus,theSecondEmpire.ItwastheGermanworkmenwho,togetherwiththerurallaborers,furnishedthesinewsandmusclesofheroichosts,leavingbehindtheirhalf-starvedfamilies.Decimatedbythebattlesabroad,theywillbeoncemoredecimatedbymiseryathome.Intheirturn,theyarenowcomingforwardtoaskfor “guarantees” –guaranteesthattheirimmensesacrificeshavenotbeenboughtinvain,thattheyhaveconqueredliberty,thatthevictoryovertheimperialistarmieswillnot,asin1815,beturnedintothedefeatoftheGermanpeople[12];and,asthefirstoftheseguarantees,theyclaimanhonorablepeaceforFrance,andtherecognitionoftheFrenchrepublic.

TheCentralCommitteeoftheGermanSocial-DemocraticWorkmen’sPartyissued,onSeptember5,amanifesto,energeticallyinsistingupontheseguarantees.

“We,” theysay, “protestagainsttheannexationofAlsaceandLorraine.AndweareconsciousofspeakinginthenameoftheGermanworkingclass.InthecommoninterestofFranceandGermany,intheinterestofwesterncivilizationagainsteasternbarbarism,theGermanworkmenwillnotpatientlytoleratetheannexationofAlsaceandLorraine....Weshallfaithfullystandbyourfellowworkmeninallcountriesforthecommoninternationalcauseoftheproletariat!”

Unfortunately,wecannotfeelsanguineoftheirimmediatesuccess.IftheFrenchworkmenamidstpeacefailedtostoptheaggressor,aretheGermanworkmenmorelikelytostopthevictoramidsttheclamourofarms?TheGermanworkmen’smanifestodemandstheextraditionofLouisBonaparteasacommonfelontotheFrenchrepublic.Theirrulersare,onthecontrary,alreadytryinghardtorestorehimtotheTuileries[13]asthebestmantoruinFrance.Howeverthatmaybe,historywillprovethattheGermanworkingclassarenotmadeofthesamemalleablestuffastheGermanmiddleclass.Theywilldotheirduty.

Likethem,wehailtheadventoftherepublicinFrance,butatthesametimewelaborundermisgivingswhichwehopewillprovegroundless.Thatrepublichasnotsubvertedthethrone,butonlytakenitsplace,becomevacant.Ithasbeenproclaimed,notasasocialconquest,butasanationalmeasureofdefence.ItisinthehandsofaProvisionalGovernmentcomposedpartlyofnotoriousOrleanists,partlyofmiddleclassrepublicans,uponsomeofwhomtheinsurrectionofJune1848hasleftitsindeliblestigma.Thedivisionoflaboramongstthemembersofthatgovernmentlooksawkward.TheOrleanistshaveseizedthestrongholdsofthearmyandthepolice,whiletotheprofessedrepublicanshavefallenthetalkingdepartments.Someoftheiractsgofartoshowthattheyhaveinheritedfromtheempire,notonlyruins,butalsoitsdreadoftheworkingclass.Ifeventualimpossibilitiesare,inwildphraseology,promisedinthenameoftherepublic,isitnotwithaviewtopreparethecryfora “possible” government?Istherepublic,bysomeofitsmiddleclassundertakers,notintendedtoserveasamerestop-gapandbridgeoveranOrleanistrestoration?

TheFrenchworkingclassmoves,therefore,undercircumstancesofextremedifficulty.Anyattemptatupsettingthenewgovernmentinthepresentcrisis,whentheenemyisalmostknockingatthedoorsofParis,wouldbeadesperatefolly.TheFrenchworkmenmustperformtheirdutiesascitizens;but,atthesametime,theymustnotallowthemselvestobeswayedbythenationalsouvenirsof1792,astheFrenchpeasantallowedthemselvestobedeludedbythenationalsouvenirsoftheFirstEmpire.Theyhavenottorecapitulatethepast,buttobuildupthefuture.Letthemcalmlyandresolutelyimprovetheopportunitiesofrepublicanliberty,fortheworkoftheirownclassorganization.ItwillgiftthemwithfreshherculeanpowersfortheregenerationofFrance,andourcommontask–theemancipationoflabor.Upontheirenergiesandwisdomhingesthefateoftherepublic.

TheEnglishworkmenhavealreadytakenmeasurestoovercome,byawholesomepressurefromwithout,thereluctanceoftheirgovernmenttorecognizetheFrenchrepublic.[14]ThepresentdilatorinessoftheBritishgovernmentisprobablyintendedtoatonefortheAnti-Jacobinwar[1792]andtheformerindecenthasteinsanctioningthecoupd’etat.[15]TheEnglishworkmencallalsoupontheirgovernmenttoopposebyallitspowerthedismembermentofFrance,whichapartoftheEnglishpressisshamelessenoughtohowlfor.Itisthesamepressthatfor20yearsdeifiedLouisBonaparteastheprovidenceofEurope,thatfranticallycheeredontheslaveholders’rebellion.[16]Now,asthen,itdrudgesfortheslaveholder.

LetthesectionsoftheInternationalWorkingMen’sAssociationineverycountrystirtheworkingclassestoaction.Iftheyforsaketheirduty,iftheyremainpassive,thepresenttremendouswarwillbebuttheharbingerofstilldeadlierinternationalfeuds,andleadineverynationtoarenewedtriumphovertheworkmanbythelordsofthesword,ofthesoil,andofcapital.

VivelaRepublique!

1The Capitulation of France & The Government of Thiers

TheCapitulationofFrance

InSeptember4,1870,whentheworkingmenofParisproclaimedtherepublic,whichwasalmostinstantaneouslyacclaimedthroughoutFrance,withoutasinglevoiceofdissent,acabalofplace-huntingbarristers,withThiersfortheirstatesman,andTrochufortheirgeneral,tookholdoftheHoteldeVille.AtthattimetheywereimbuedwithsofanaticalafaithinthemissionofParistorepresentFranceinallepochsofhistoricalcrisisthat,tolegitimatetheirusurpedtitlesasgovernorsofFrance,theythoughtitquitesufficienttoproducetheirlapsedmandatesasrepresentativesofParis.

Inoursecondaddressonthelatewar,fivedaysaftertheriseofthesemen,wetoldyouwhotheywere.Yet,intheturmoilofsurprise,withtherealleadersoftheworkingclassstillshutupinBonapartistprisonsandthePrussiansalreadymarchingonParis,Parisborewiththeirassumptionofpower,ontheexpressconditionthatitwastobewieldedforthesinglepurposeofnationaldefence.Paris,however,wasnottobedefendedwithoutarmingitsworkingclass,organizingthemintoaneffectiveforce,andtrainingtheirranksbythewaritself.ButParisarmedwastherevolutionarmed.AvictoryofParisoverthePrussianaggressorwouldhavebeenavictoryoftheFrenchworkmenovertheFrenchcapitalistandhisstateparasites.Inthisconflictbetweennationaldutyandclassinterest,theGovernmentofNationalDefencedidnothesitateonemomenttoturnintoaGovernmentofNationalDefection.

ThefirststeptheytookwastosendThiersonarovingtourtoallthecourtsofEurope,theretobegmediationbyofferingthebarteroftherepublicforaking.Fourmonthsafterthecommencementofthesiege[ofParis],whentheythoughttheopportunemomentcameforbreakingthefirstwordofcapitulation,Trochu,inthepresenceofJulesFavre,andothersofhiscolleagues,addressedtheassembledmayorsofParisintheseterms:

“Thefirstquestionputtomebymycolleaguesontheveryeveningofthe4thofSeptemberwasthis:Paris,canit,withanychanceofsuccess,standasiegebythePrussianarmy?Ididnothesitatetoanswerinthenegative.Someofmycolleaguesherepresentwillwarrantthetruthofmywordsandthepersistenceofmyopinion.Itoldthem,intheseveryterms,that,undertheexistingstateofthings,theattemptofParistoholdoutasiegebythePrussianarmywouldbeafolly.Withoutdoubt,Iadded,itwouldbeanheroicfolly;butthatwouldbeall....Theevents[managedbyhimself]havenotgiventhelietomyprevision.”

ThisnicelittlespeechofTrochuwasafterwardspublishedbyM.Carbon,oneofthemayorspresent.

Thus,ontheveryeveningoftheproclamationoftherepublic,Trochu’s “plan” wasknowntohiscolleaguestobethecapitulationofParis.IfnationaldefencehasbeenmorethanapretextforthepersonalgovernmentofThiers,Favre,andCo.,theupstartsofSeptember4wouldhaveabdicatedonthe5th–wouldhaveinitiatedtheParispeopleintoTrochu’s “plan,” andcalleduponthemtosurrenderatonce,ortotaketheirownfateintotheirownhands.Insteadofthis,theinfamousimpostorsresolveduponcuringtheheroicfollyofParisbyaregimenoffamineandbrokenheads,andtodupeherinthemeanwhilebyrantingmanifestos,holdingforththatTrochu, “thegovernorofParis,willnevercapitulate”,andJulesFavre,theforeignminister,will “notcedeaninchofourterritory,norastoneofourfortresses.”

InalettertoGambetta,theverysameJulesFavreavowsthatwhattheywere “defending” againstwerenotthePrussiansoldiers,buttheworkingmenofParis.Duringthewholecontinuanceofthesiege,theBonapartistcut-throats,whomTrochuhadwiselyentrustedwiththecommandoftheParisarmy,exchanged,intheirintimatecorrespondence,ribaldjokesatthewell-understoodmockeryofdefence.(See,forinstance,thecorrespondenceofAlphonseSimonGuiod,supremecommanderoftheartilleryoftheArmyofDefenceofParisandGrandCrossoftheLegionofHonor,toSuzanne,generalofdivisionofartillery,acorrespondencepublishedbytheJournalofficieloftheCommune.)ThemaskofthetrueheroismwasatlastdroppedonJanuary28,1871.Withthetrueheroismofutterself-debasement,theGovernmentofNationalDefence,intheircapitulation,cameoutasthegovernmentofFrancebyBismarck’sprisoners–apartsobasethatLouisBonapartehimselfhad,atSedan,shrunkfromacceptingit.AftertheeventsofMarch18ontheirwildflighttoVersailles,thecapitulardsleftinthehandsofParisthedocumentaryevidenceoftheirtreason,todestroywhich,astheCommunesaysinitsmanifestototheprovinces, “thosemenwouldnotrecoilfrombatteringParisintoaheapofruinswashedbyaseaofblood.”

Tobeeagerlybentuponsuchaconsummation,someoftheleadingmembersoftheGovernmentofDefencehad,besides,mostpeculiarreasonsoftheirown.

Shortlyaftertheconclusionofthearmistice,M.Milliere,oneoftherepresentativesofParistotheNationalAssembly,nowshotbyexpressordersofJulesFavre,publishedaseriesofauthenticlegaldocumentsinproofthatJulesFavre,livinginconcubinagewiththewifeofadrunkenresidentatAlgiers,had,byamostdaringconcoctionofforgeries,spreadovermanyyears,contrivedtograsp,inthenameofthechildrenofhisadultery,alargesuccession,whichmadehimarichman,andthat,inalawsuitundertakenbythelegitimateheirs,heonlyescapedexposurebytheconnivanceoftheBonapartisttribunals.Asthesedrylegaldocumentswerenottobegotridofbyanyamountofrhetoricalhorse-power,JulesFavre,forthefirsttimeinhislife,heldhistongue,quietlyawaitingtheoutbreakofthecivilwar,inorder,then,franticallytodenouncethepeopleofParisasabandofescapedconvictsinutterrevoltagainstfamily,religion,order,andproperty.Thissameforgerhadhardlygotintopower,afterSeptember4,whenhesympatheticallyletlooseuponsocietyPicandTaillefer,convicted,evenundertheempire,offorgeryinthescandalousaffairof “Etendard.” Oneofthesemen,Taillefer,havingdaredtoreturntoParisundertheCommune,wasatoncereinstatedinprison;andthenJulesFavreexclaimed,fromthetribuneoftheNationalAssembly,thatPariswassettingfreeallherjailbirds!

ErnestPicard,theJoeMilleroftheGovernmentofNationalDefence,whoappointedhimselfFinanceMinisteroftherepublicafterhavinginvainstriventobecomehomeministeroftheempire,isthebrotherofoneArthurPicard,anindividualexpelledfromtheParisBourseasablackleg(seereportofthePrefectureofPolice,datedJuly13,1867),andconvicted,onhisownconfession,oftheftof300,000francs,whilemanagerofoneofthebranchesoftheSocieteGenerale,[17]RuePalestro,No.5(seereportofthePrefectureofPolice,datedDecember11,1868).ThisArthurPicardwasmadebyErnestPicardtheeditorofhispaper,l’ElecteurLibre.Whilethecommonrunofstockjobberswereledastraybytheofficialliesofthisfinanceofficepaper,ArthurwasrunningbackwardsandforwardsbetweenthefinanceofficeandtheBourse,theretodiscountthedisastersoftheFrencharmy.ThewholefinancialcorrespondenceofthatworthypairofbrothersfellintothehandsoftheCommune.

JulesFerry,apennilessbarristerbeforeSeptember4,contrived,asmayorofParisduringthesiege,tojobafortuneoutoffamine.Thedayonwhichhewouldhavetogiveanaccountofhismaladministrationwouldbethedayofhisconviction.

Thesemen,then,couldfindintheruinsofParisonlytheirtickets-of-leave(1);theyweretheverymenBismarckwanted.Withthehelpofsomeshufflingofcards,Thiers,hithertothesecretprompterofthegovernment,nowappearedatitshead,withthetickets-of-leavemenforhisministers.

Theirs,thatmonstrousgnome,hascharmedtheFrenchbourgeoisieforalmosthalfacentury,becauseheisthemostconsummateintellectualexpressionoftheirownclasscorruption.Beforehebecameastatesman,hehadalreadyprovedhislyingpowersasanhistorian.ThechronicleofhispubliclifeistherecordofthemisfortunesofFrance.Banded,before1830,withtherepublicans,heslippedintoofficeunderLouisPhilippebybetrayinghisprotectorLafitte,ingratiatinghimselfwiththekingbyexcitingmobriotsagainsttheclergy,duringwhichthechurchofSaintGermainl’AuxerroisandtheArchbishop’spalacewereplundered,andbyactingtheminster-spyupon,andthejail-accoucheuroftheDuchessdeBerry.[18]ThemassacreoftherepublicansintheRueTransnonian,andthesubsequentinfamouslawsofSeptemberagainstthepressandtherightofassociation,werehiswork.[19]ReappearingasthechiefofthecabinetinMarch1840,heastonishedFrancewithhisplanforfortifyingFrance.[20]Totherepublicans,whodenouncedthisplanasasinisterplotagainstthelibertyofParis,herepliedfromthetribuneoftheChamberofDeputies:

“What!Tofancythatanyworksoffortificationcouldeverendangerliberty!Andfirstofallyoucalumniateanypossiblegovernmentinsupposingthatitcouldsomedayattempttomaintainitselfbybombardingthecapital;[...]butthatthegovernmentwouldbeahundredtimesmoreimpossibleafteritsvictorythanbefore.”

Indeed,nogovernmentwouldeverhavedaredtobombardParisfromtheforts,savethatgovernmentwhichhadpreviouslysurrenderedthesefortstothePrussians.

WhenKingBomba[FerdinandIIofSpain]triedhishandatPalermo,inJanuary1848,Thiers,thenlongsinceoutofoffice,againroseintheChamberofDeputies:

“Youknow,gentlemen,whatishappeningatPalermo.You,allofyou,shakewithhorror[intheparliamentarysense]onhearingthatduring48hoursalargetownhasbeenbombarded–bywhom?Wasitaforeignenemyexercisingtherightsofwar?No,gentlemen,itwasbyitsowngovernment.Andwhy?Becausetheunfortunatetowndemandeditsrights.Well,then,forthedemandofitsrightsithasgot48hoursofbombardment....AllowmetoappealtotheopinionofEurope.Itisdoingaservicetomankindtoarise,andtomakereverberate,fromwhatisperhapsthegreatesttribuneinEurope,somewords[indeedwords]ofindignationagainstsuchacts....WhentheRegentEspartero,whohadrenderedservicestohiscountry[whichM.Thiersneverdid]intendedbombardingBarcelona,inordertosuppressitsinsurrection,therearosefromallpartsoftheworldageneraloutcryofindignation.”

Eighteenmonthsafterwards,M.ThierswasamongstthefiercestdefendersofthebombardmentofRomebyaFrencharmy.[21]Infact,thefaultofKingBombaseemstohaveconsistedinthisonly–thathelimitedhisbombardmentto48hours.

AfewdaysbeforetheFebruaryRevolution,frettingatthelongexilefromplaceandpelftowhichGuizothadcondemnedhim,andsniffingintheairthescentofanapproachingpopularcommotion,Theirs,inthatpseudo-heroicstylewhichwonhimthenicknameMirabeau-mouche[Mirabeauthefly],declared,totheChamberofDeputies:

“Iamofthepartyofrevolution,notonlyinFrance,butinEurope.Iwishthegovernmentoftherevolutiontoremaininthehandsofmoderatemen...butifthatgovernmentshouldfallintothehandofardentminds,evenintothoseofradicals,Ishall,forallthat,notdesertmycause.Ishallalwaysbeofthepartyoftherevolution.”

TheFebruaryRevolutioncame.InsteadofdisplacingtheGuizotCabinetbytheThiersCabinet,asthelittlemanhaddreamt,itsupersededLouisPhilippebytherepublic.Onthefirstdayofthepopularvictory,hecarefullyhidhimself,forgettingthatthecontemptoftheworkingmenscreenedhimfromtheirhatred.Still,withhislegendarycourage,hecontinuedtoshythepublicstage,untiltheJune[1848]massacreshadcleareditforhissortofaction.Thenhebecametheleadingmindofthe “PartyofOrder”[22]anditsparliamentaryrepublic,thatanonymousinterregnum,inwhichalltherivalfactionsoftherulingclassconspiredtogethertocrushthepeople,andconspiredagainsteachothertorestoretoeachofthemitsownmonarchy.Then,asnow,Thiersdenouncedtherepublicansastheonlyobstacletotheconsolidationoftherepublic;then,asnow,hespoketotherepublicasthehangmanspoketoDonCarlos: “Ishallassassinatethee,butforthyowngood.” Now,asthen,hewillhavetoexclaimonthedayafterhisvictory:L’Empireestfait–theempireisconsummated.

DespitehishypocriticalhomiliesaboutthenecessarylibertiesandhispersonalgrudgeagainstLouisBonaparte,whohadmadeadupeofhim,andkickedoutparliamentarism–and,outsideofitsfactitiousatmosphere,thelittlemanisconsciousofwitheringintonothingness–hehadahandinalltheinfamiesoftheSecondEmpire,fromtheoccupationofRomebyFrenchtroopstothewarwithPrussia,whichheincitedbyhisfierceinvectiveagainstGermanunity–notasacloakofPrussiandespotism,butasanencroachmentuponthevestedrightofFranceinGermandisunion.Fondofbrandishing,withhisdwarfisharmsinthefaceofEurope,theswordofthefirstNapoleon,whosehistoricalshoeblackhehadbecome,hisforeignpolicyalwaysculminatedintheutterhumiliationofFrance–fromtheLondonconvention[23]of1840tothePariscapitulationof1871,andthepresentcivilwar,wherehehoundsontheprisonersofSedanandMetz[24]againstParisbyspecialpermissionofBismarck.

Despitehisversatilityoftalentandshiftinessofpurpose,thismanhashiswholelifetimebeenweddedtothemostfossilroutine.Itisself-evidentthattohimthedeeperundercurrentsofmodernsocietyremainedforeverhidden;buteventhemostpalpablechangesonitssurfacewereabhorrenttoabrain(allthevitalityofwhich)hadfledtothetongue.Thus,henevertiredofdenouncingasasacrilegeanydeviationfromtheoldFrenchprotectivesystem.

WhenaministerofLouisPhilippe,herailedatrailwaysasawildchimera;andwheninoppositionunderLouisBonaparte,hebrandedasaprofanationeveryattempttoreformtherottenFrencharmysystem.Neverinhislongpoliticalcareerhashebeenguiltyofasingle–eventhesmallest–measureofanypracticaluse.Theirswasconsistentonlyinhisgreedforwealthandhishatredofthementhatproduceit.Havingenteredhisfirstministry,underLouisPhilippe,poorasJob,heleftitamillionaire.Hislastministryunderthesameking(ofMarch1,1840)exposedhimtopublictauntsofpeculationintheChamberofDeputies,towhichhewascontenttoreplybytears–acommodityhedealsinasfreelyasJulesFavre,oranyothercrocodile.AtBordeaux,hisfirstmeasureforsavingFrancefromimpendingfinancialruinwastoendowhimselfwiththreemillionsayear,thefirstandthelastwordofthe “EconomicalRepublic,” thevistaofwhichhehadopenedtohisPariselectorsin1869.OneofhisformercolleaguesoftheChamberofDeputiesof1830,himselfacapitalistand,nevertheless,adevotedmemberoftheParisCommune,M.Beslay,latelyaddressedThiersthusinapublicplacard:

“Theenslavementoflaborbycapitalhasalwaysbeenthecornerstoneofyourpolicy,andfromtheverydayyousawtheRepublicofLaborinstalledattheHoteldeVille,youhaveneverceasedtocryouttoFrance:‘Thesearecriminals!’”

Amasterinsmallstateroguery,avirtuosoinperjuryandtreason,acraftsmaninallthepettystrategems,cunningdevices,andbaseperfidiesofparliamentarywarfare;neverscrupling,whenoutofoffice,tofanarevolution,andtostifleitinbloodwhenatthehelmofthestate;withclassprejudicesstandinghimintheplaceofideas,andvanityintheplaceofaheart;hisprivatelifeasinfamousashispubliclifeisodious–evennow,whenplayingthepartofaFrenchSulla,hecannothelpsettingofftheabominationofhisdeedsbytheridiculeofhisostentation.

ThecapitulationofParis,bysurrenderingtoPrussianotonlyParis,butallFrance,closedthelong-continuedintriguesoftreasonwiththeenemy,whichtheusurpersofSeptember4hadbegun,asTrochuhimselfsaid,ontheverysameday.Ontheotherhand,itinitiatedthecivilwartheywerenowtowage,withtheassistanceofPrussia,againsttherepublicandParis.Thetrapwaslaidintheverytermsofthecapitulation.Atthattime,aboveone-thirdoftheterritorywasinthehandsoftheenemy,thecapitalwascutofffromtheprovinces,allcommunicationsweredisorganized.Toelect,undersuchcircumstances,arealrepresentationofFrancewasimpossible,unlessampletimeweregivenforpreparation.Inviewofthis,thecapitulationstipulatedthataNationalAssemblymustbeelectedwithineightdays;sothatinmanypartsofFrancethenewsoftheimpendingelectionarrivedonitseveonly.Thisassembly,moreover,was,byanexpressclauseofthecapitulation,tobeelectedforthesolepurposeofdecidingonpeaceorwar,and,eventually,toconcludeatreatyofpeace.Thepopulationcouldnotbutfeelthatthetermsofthearmisticerenderedthecontinuationofthewarimpossible,andthatforsanctioningthepeaceimposedbyBismarck,theworstmeninFrancewerethebest.Butnotcontentwiththeseprecautions,ThiersevenbeforethesecretofthearmisticehadbeenbroachedtoParis,setoutforanelectioneeringtourthroughtheprovinces,theretogalvanizebackintolifetheLegitimistparty,whichnow,alongwiththeOrleanists,hadtotaketheplaceofthethenimpossibleBonapartists.Hewasnotafraidofthem.ImpossibleasagovernmentofmodernFrance,and,therefore,contemptibleasrivals,whatpartyweremoreeligibleastoolsofcounter-revolutionthanthepartywhoseaction,inthewordsofThiershimself(ChamberofDeputies,January5,1833), “Hadalwaysbeenconfinedtothethreeresourcesofforeigninvasion,civilwar,andanarchy”?Theyverilybelievedintheadventoftheirlong-expectedretrospectivemillennium.ThereweretheheelsofforeigninvasiontramplinguponFrance;therewasthedownfallofanempire,andthecaptivityofBonaparte;andtheretheywerethemselves.Thewheelofhistoryhadevidentlyrolledbacktostopatthe “Chambersintrouvable” of1816.[25]Intheassembliesoftherepublic,1848to1851,theyhadbeenrepresentedbytheireducatedandtrainedparliamentarychampions;itwastherank-and-fileofthepartywhichnowrushedin–allthePourceaugnacsofFrance.[acharacterinoneofMolière’scomedies,typifyingthedull-witted,narrow-mindedpettylandedgentry.]

AssoonasthisAssemblyof “Rurals”[26]hadmetatBordeaux,Thiersmadeitcleartothemthatthepeacepreliminariesmustbeassentedtoatonce,withouteventhehonorsofaparliamentarydebate,astheonlyconditionsonwhichPrussiawouldpermitthemtoopenthewaragainsttherepublicandParis,itsstronghold.Thecounter-revolutionhad,infact,notimetolose.TheSecondEmpirehadmorethandoubledthenationaldebt,andplungedallthelargetownsintoheavymunicipaldebts.Thewarhadfearfullyswelledtheliabilities,andmercilesslyravagedtheresourcesofthenation.Tocompletetheruin,thePrussianShylockwastherewithhisbondforthekeepofhalfamillionofhissoldiersonFrenchsoil,hisindemnityforfivemilliards[27],andinterestat5percentontheunpaidinstalmentsthereof.Whowastopaythisbill?Itwasonlybytheviolentoverthrowoftherepublicthattheappropriatorsofwealthcouldhopetoshiftontotheshouldersofitsproducersthecostofawarwhichthey,theappropriators,hadthemselvesoriginated.Thus,theimmenseruinofFrancespurredonthesepatrioticrepresentativesoflandandcapital,undertheveryeyesandpatronageoftheinvader,tograftupontheforeignwaracivilwar–aslaveholders’rebellion.

Therestoodinthewayofthisconspiracyonegreatobstacle–Paris.TodisarmPariswasthefirstconditionofsuccess.PariswasthereforesummonedbyThierstosurrenderitsarms.ThenPariswasexasperatedbythefranticanti-republicandemonstrationsofthe “Rural” AssemblyandbyThiers’ownequivocationsaboutthelegalstatusoftherepublic;bythethreattodecapitateanddecapitalizeParis;theappointmentofOrleanistambassadors;Dufaure’slawsonover-duecommercialbillsandhouserents[28],inflictingruinonthecommerceandindustryofParis;Pouyer-Quertier’staxoftwocentimesuponeverycopyofeveryimaginablepublication;thesentencesofdeathagainstBlanquiandFlourens;thesuppressionoftherepublicanjournals;thetransferoftheNationalAssemblytoVersailles;therenewalofthestateofsiegedeclaredbyPalikao,andexpiredonSeptember4;theappointmentofVinoy,theDécembriseur[29],asgovernorofParis–ofValentin,theimperialistgendarme,asitsprefectofpolice–andofD’AurellesdePaladine,theJesuitgeneral,asthecommander-in-chiefofitsNationalGuard.

AndnowwehavetoaddressaquestiontoM.Thiersandthemenofnationaldefence,hisunder-strappers.Itisknownthat,throughtheagencyofM.Pouyer-Quertier,hisfinanceministers,Thiershadcontractedaloanoftwomilliards.Now,isittrueornot–

1.ThatthebusinesswassomanagedthataconsiderationofseveralhundredmillionswassecuredfortheprivatebenefitofThiers,JulesFavre,ErnestPicard,Pouyer-Quertier,andJulesSimon?and–

2.Thatnomoneywastobepaiddownuntilafterthe “pacification” ofParis?[30]

Atallevents,theremusthavebeensomethingverypressinginthematter,forThiersandJulesFavre,inthenameofthemajorityoftheBordeauxAssembly,unblushinglysolicitedtheimmediateoccupationofParisbyPrussiantroops.Such,however,wasnotthegameofBismarck,ashesneeringly,andinpublic,toldtheadmiringFrankfortphilistinesonhisreturntoGermany.

1Paris Workers’ Revolution & Thiers’ Reactionary Massacres

ParisWorkers’Revolution

ArmedPariswastheonlyseriousobstacleinthewayofthecounter-revolutionaryconspiracy.Pariswas,therefore,tobedisarmed.

Onthispoint,theBordeauxAssembly[NationalAssembly]wassincerityitself.IftheroaringrantofitsRuralshadnotbeenaudibleenough,thesurrenderofParisbyThierstothetendermerciesofthetriumvirateofVinoytheDecembriseur,ValentintheBonapartistgendarme,andAurellesdePaladinetheJesuitgeneral,wouldhavecutoffeventhelastsubterfugeofdoubt.

ButwhileinsultinglyexhibitingthetruepurposeofthedisarmamentofParis,theconspiratorsaskedhertolaydownherarmsonapretextwhichwasthemostglaring,themostbarefacedoflies.TheartilleryoftheParisNationalGuard,saidThiers,belongedtothestate,andtothestateitmustbereturned.Thefactwasthis:Fromtheverydayofthecapitulation,bywhichBismarck’sprisonershadsignedthesurrenderofFrance,butreservedtothemselvesanumerousbodyguardfortheexpresspurposeofcowingParis,Parisstoodonthewatch.TheNationalGuardreorganizedthemselvesandentrustedtheirsupremecontroltoaCentralCommitteeelectedbytheirwholebody,savesomefragmentsoftheoldBonapartistformations.OntheeveoftheentranceofthePrussiansintoParis,theCentralCommitteetookmeasuresfortheremovaltoMontmartre,Belleville,andLaVillette,ofthecannonandmitrailleusestreacherouslyabandonedbythecapitulardsinandabouttheveryquartersthePrussiansweretooccupy.ThatartilleryhadbeenfurnishedbythesubscriptionsoftheNationalGuard.Astheirprivateproperty,itwasofficiallyrecognizedinthecapitulationofJanuary28,andonthatverytitleexemptedfromthegeneralsurrender,intothehandsoftheconqueror,orarmsbelongingtothegovernment.AndThierswassoutterlydestituteofeventheflimsiestpretextforinitiatingthewaragainstParis,thathehadtoresorttotheflagrantlieoftheartilleryoftheNationalGuardbeingstateproperty!

TheseizureofherartillerywasevidentlybuttoserveasthepreliminarytothegeneraldisarmamentofParis,and,therefore,oftheRevolutionofSeptember4.ButthatrevolutionhadbecomethelegalstatusofFrance.Therepublic,itswork,wasrecognizedbytheconquerorinthetermsofthecapitulation.Afterthecapitulation,itwasacknowledgedbyallforeignpowers,andinitsname,theNationalAssemblyhadbeensummoned.TheParisworkingmen’srevolutionofSeptember4wastheonlylegaltitleoftheNationalAssemblyseatedatBordeaux,andofitsexecutive.Withoutit,theNationalAssemblywouldatoncehavetogivewaytotheCorpsLegislatifelectedin1869byuniversalsuffrageunderFrench,notunderPrussian,rule,andforciblydispersedbythearmoftherevolution.Thiersandhisticket-of-leavemenwouldhavehadtocapitulateforsafeconductssignedbyLouisBonaparte,tosavethemfromavoyagetoCayenne[31].TheNationalAssembly,withitspowerofattorneytosettlethetermsofpeacewithPrussia,wasbutanincidentofthatrevolution,thetrueembodimentofwhichwasstillarmedParis,whichhadinitiatedit,undergoneforitafive-months’siege,withitshorrorsoffamine,andmadeherprolongedresistance,despiteTrochu’splan,thebasisofanobstinatewarofdefenceintheprovinces.AndPariswasnoweithertolaydownherarmsattheinsultingbehestoftherebelliousslaveholdersofBordeaux,andacknowledgethatherRevolutionofSeptember4meantnothingbutasimpletransferofpowerfromLouisBonapartetohisroyalrivals;orshehadtostandforwardastheself-sacrificingchampionofFrance,whosesalvationfromruinandwhoseregenerationwereimpossiblewithouttherevolutionaryoverthrowofthepoliticalandsocialconditionsthathadengenderedtheSecondEmpire,andunderitsfosteringcare,maturedintoutterrottenness.Paris,emaciatedbyafive-months’famine,didnothesitateonemoment.SheheroicallyresolvedtorunallthehazardsofaresistanceagainstFrenchconspirators,evenwithPrussiancannonfrowninguponherfromherownforts.Still,initsabhorrenceofthecivilwarintowhichPariswastobegoaded,theCentralCommitteecontinuedtopersistinamerelydefensiveattitude,despitetheprovocationsoftheAssembly,theusurpationsoftheExecutive,andthemenacingconcentrationoftroopsinandaroundParis.

ThiersopenedthecivilwarbysendingVinoy,attheheadofamultitudeofsergents-de-ville,andsomeregimentsoftheline,uponanocturnalexpeditionagainstMontmartre,theretoseize,bysurprise,theartilleryoftheNationalGuard.ItiswellknownhowthisattemptbrokedownbeforetheresistanceoftheNationalGuardandthefraternizationofthelinewiththepeople.AurellesdePaldinehadprintedbeforehandhisbulletinofvictory,andThiersheldreadytheplacardsannouncinghismeasuresofcoupd’etat.NowthesehadtobereplacedbyThiers’appeals,impartinghismagnanimousresolvetoleavetheNationalGuardinthepossessionoftheirarms,withwhich,hesaid,hefeltsuretheywouldrallyroundthegovernmentagainsttherebels.Outof300,000Nationalguards,only300respondedtothissummonstorallyaroundlittleThiersagainstthemselves.Thegloriousworkingmen’sRevolutionofMarch18tookundisputedswayofParis.TheCentralCommitteewasitsprovisionalgovernment.Europeseemed,foramoment,todoubtwhetheritsrecentsensationalperformancesofstateandwarhadanyrealityinthem,orwhethertheywerethedreamsofalongbygonepast.

FromMarch18totheentranceoftheVersaillestroopsintoParis,theproletarianrevolutionremainedsofreefromtheactsofviolenceinwhichtherevolutions–andstillmorethecounter-revolutions–ofthe “betterclasses” abound,thatnofactswerelefttoitsopponentstocryoutabout,buttheexecutionsofGeneralsLecomteandClementThomas,andtheaffairofthePlaceVendome.

OneoftheBonapartistofficersengagedinthenocturnalattemptagainstMontmartre,GeneralLecomte,hadfourtimesorderedthe81stlineregimenttofireatanunarmedgatheringinthePlacePigalle,andontheirrefusalfiercelyinsultedthem.Insteadofshootingwomenandchildren,hisownmenshothim.Theinveteratehabitsacquiredbythesoldieryunderthetrainingoftheenemiesoftheworkingclassare,ofcourse,notlikelytochangetheverymomentthesesoldierschangesides.ThesamemenexecutedClementThomas.

“General” ClementThomas,amalcontentex-quartermaster-sergeant,had,inthelattertimesofLouisPhilippe’sreign,enlistedattheofficeoftherepublicannewspaperLeNational,theretoserveinthedoublecapacityofresponsibleman-of-straw(gerantresponsable)andofduellingbullytothatverycombativejournal.AftertheFebruaryRevolution,themenoftheNationalhavinggotintopower,theymetamorphosedthisoldquarter-master-sergeantintoageneralontheeveofthebutcheryofJune–ofwhichhe,likeJulesFavre,wasoneofthesinisterplotters,andbecameoneofthemostdastardlyexecutioners.Thenheandhisgeneralshipdisappearedforalongtime,toagainrisetothesurfaceonNovember1,1870.Thedaybefore,theGovernmentofNationalDefence,caughtattheHoteldeVille,hadsolemnlypledgedtheirparoletoBlanqui,Flourens,andotherrepresentativesoftheworkingclass,toabdicatetheirusurpedpowerintothehandsofacommunetobefreelyelectedbyParis.[32]Insteadofkeepingtheirword,theyletlooseonParistheBretonsofTrochu,whonowreplacedtheCorsicansofBonaparte.[33]GeneralTamisieralone,refusingtosullyhisnamebysuchabreachoffaith,resignedthecommandership-in-chiefoftheNationalGuard,andinhisplaceClementThomasforoncebecameagainageneral.Duringthewholeofhistenureofcommand,hemadewar,notuponthePrussians,butupontheParisNationalGuard.Hepreventedtheirgeneralarmament,pittedthebourgeoisbattalionsagainsttheworkingmen’sbattalions,weededoutofficershostiletoTrochu’s “plan,” anddisbanded,underthestigmaofcowardice,theverysameproletarianbattalionswhoseheroismhasnowastonishedtheirmostinveterateenemies.ClementThomasfeltquiteproudofhavingreconqueredhisJunepre-eminenceasthepersonalenemyoftheworkingclassofParis.OnlyafewdaysbeforeMarch18,helaidbeforetheWarMinister,Leflo,aplanofhisownfor “finishingofflafinefleur[thecream]ofthePariscanaille.” AfterVinoy’srout,hemustneedsappearuponthesceneofactioninthequalityofanamateurspy.TheCentralCommitteeandtheParisworkingmenwereasmuchresponsibleforthekillingofClementThomasandLecomteasthePrincessofWalesforthefateofthepeoplecrushedtodeathonthedayofherentranceintoLondon.

ThemassacreofunarmedcitizensinPlaceVendomeisamythwhichM.ThiersandtheRuralspersistentlyignoredintheAssembly,entrustingitspropagationexclusivelytotheservants’hallofEuropeanjournalism. “Themenoforder,” thereactionistsofParis,trembledatthevictoryofMarch18.Tothem,itwasthesignalofpopularretributionatlastarriving.TheghostsofthevictimsassassinatedattheirhandsfromthedaysofJune1848,downtoJanuary22,1871,[34]arosebeforetheirfaces.Theirpanicwastheironlypunishment.Eventhesergents-de-ville,insteadofbeingdisarmedandlockedup,asoughttohavebeendone,hadthegatesofParisflungopenwidefortheirsaferetreattoVersailles.Themenoforderwereleftnotonlyunharmed,butallowedtorallyandquietlyseizemorethanonestrongholdintheverycentreofParis.ThisindulgenceoftheCentralCommittee–thismagnanimityofthearmedworkingmen–sostrangelyatvariancewiththehabitsofthe “PartyofOrder,” thelattermisinterpretedasmeresymptomsofconsciousweakness.Hencetheirsillyplantotry,underthecloakofanunarmeddemonstration,whatVinoyhadfailedtoperformwithhiscannonandmitrailleuses.OnMarch22,ariotousmobofswellsstartedfromthequartersofluxury,allthepetitscrevesintheirranks,andattheirheadthenotoriousfamiliarsoftheempire–theHeeckeren,Coetlogon,HenridePene,etc.Underthecowardlypretenceofapacificdemonstration,thisrabble,secretlyarmedwiththeweaponsofthebravo[i.e.hiredassassin],fellintomarchingorder,ill-treatedanddisarmedthedetachedpatrolsandsentriesoftheNationalGuardtheymetwithontheirprogress,and,ondebouchingfromtheRuedelaPaix,withthecryof “DownwiththeCentralCommittee!Downwiththeassassins!TheNationalAssemblyforever!” attemptedtobreakthroughthelinedrawnupthere,andthustocarrybysurprisetheheadquartersoftheNationalGuardinthePlaceVendome.Inreplytotheirpistol-shots,theregularsommations(theFrenchequivalentoftheEnglishRiotAct)[35]weremade,and,provingineffective,firewascommandedbythegeneral[Bergeret]oftheNationalGuard.Onevolleydispersedintowildflightthesillycoxcombs,whoexpectedthatthemereexhibitionoftheir “respectability” wouldhavethesameeffectupontheRevolutionofParisasJoshua’strumpetsuponthewallsofJericho.TherunawaysleftbehindthemtwoNationalGuardskilled,nineseverelywounded(amongthemamemberoftheCentralCommittee[Maljournal]),andthewholesceneoftheirexploitstrewnwithrevolvers,daggers,andsword-canes,inevidenceofthe “unarmed” characteroftheir “pacific” demonstration.When,onJune13,1849,theNationalGuardmadeareallypacificdemonstrationinprotestagainstthefeloniousassaultofFrenchtroopsuponRome,Changarnier,thengeneralofthePartyofOrder,wasacclaimedbytheNationalAssembly,andespeciallybyM.Thiers,asthesaviorofsociety,forhavinglaunchedhistroopsfromallsidesupontheseunarmedmen,toshootandsabrethemdown,andtotramplethemundertheirhorses’feet.Paris,thenwasplacedunderastateofsiege.DufaurehurriedthroughtheAssemblynewlawsofrepression.Newarrests,newproscriptions–anewreignofterrorsetin.Butthelowerordersmanagethesethingsotherwise.TheCentralCommitteeof1871simplyignoredtheheroesofthe “pacificdemonstration”;somuchso,thatonlytwodayslater,theywereenabledtomusterunderAdmiralSaisset,forthatarmeddemonstration,crownedbythefamousstampedetoVersailles.IntheirreluctancetocontinuethecivilwaropenedbyThiers’burglariousattemptonMontmartre,theCentralCommitteemadethemselves,thistime,guiltyofadecisivemistakeinnotatoncemarchinguponVersailles,thencompletelyhelpless,andthusputtinganendtotheconspiraciesofThiersandhisRurals.Insteadofthis,thePartyofOrderwasagainallowedtotryitsstrengthattheballotbox,onMarch26,thedayoftheelectionoftheCommune.Then,inthemairiesofParis,theyexchangedblandwordsofconciliationwiththeirtoogenerousconquerors,mutteringintheirheartssolemnvowstoexterminatetheminduetime.

Now,lookatthereverseofthemedal.ThiersopenedhissecondcampaignagainstParisinthebeginningofApril.ThefirstbatchofParisianprisonersbroughtintoVersailleswassubjectedtorevoltingatrocities,whileErnestPicard,withhishandsinhistrousers’pockets,strolledaboutjeeringthem,andwhileMesdamesThiersandFavre,inthemidstoftheirladiesofhonor(?)applauded,fromthebalcony,theoutragesoftheVersaillesmob.Thecapturedsoldiersofthelineweremassacredincoldblood;ourbravefriend,GeneralDuval,theiron-founder,wasshotwithoutanyformoftrial.Galifet,thekeptmanofhiswife,sonotoriousforhershamelessexhibitionsattheorgiesoftheSecondEmpire,boastedinaproclamationofhavingcommandedthemurderofasmalltroopofNationalGuards,withtheircaptainandlieutenant,surprisedanddisarmedbyhisChasseurs.Vinoy,therunaway,wasappointedbyThiers,GrandCrossoftheLegionofHonor,forhisgeneralordertoshootdowneverysoldierofthelinetakenintheranksoftheFederals.Desmaret,theGendarme,wasdecoratedforthetreacherousbutcher-likechoppinginpiecesofthehigh-souledandchivalrousFlourens,whohadsavedtheheadsoftheGovernmentofDefenceonOctober31,1870.[36]”Theencouragingparticulars” ofhisassassinationweretriumphantlyexpatiateduponbyThiersintheNationalAssembly.WiththeelatedvanityofaparliamentaryTomThumbpermittedtoplaythepartofaTamerlane,hedeniedtherebelstherightofneutralityforambulances.Nothingmorehorridthanthatmonkeyallowedforatimetogivefullflingtohistigerishinstincts,asforeseenbyVoltaire.[Candide,Ch.22]

AfterthedecreeoftheCommuneofApril7,orderingreprisalsanddeclaringittobetheduty “toprotectParisagainstthecannibalexploitsoftheVersaillesbanditti,andtodemandaneyeforaneye,atoothforatooth,”[37]Thiersdidnotstopthebarbaroustreatmentofprisoners,moreover,insultingtheminhisbulletinsasfollows: “Neverhavemoredegradedcountenancesofadegradeddemocracymettheafflictedgazesofhonestmen” –honest,likeThiershimselfandhisministerialticket-of-leavemen.Still,theshootingofprisonerswassuspendedforatime.Hardly,however,hadThiersandhisDecembristgenerals[oftheDecember2,1851coupbyLouisBonaparte]becomeawarethattheCommunaldecreeofreprisalswasbutanemptythreat,thateventheirgendarmespiescaughtinParisunderthedisguiseofNationalGuards,thatevensergents-de-ville,takenwithincendiaryshellsuponthem,werespared–whenthewholesaleshootingofprisonerswasresumedandcarriedonuninterruptedlytotheend.HousestowhichNationalGuardshadfledweresurroundedbygendarmes,inundatedwithpetroleum(whichhereoccursforthefirsttimeinthiswar),andthensetfireto,thecharredcorpsesbeingafterwardsbroughtoutbytheambulanceofthePressattheTernes.FourNationalGuardshavingsurrenderedtoatroopofmountedChasseursatBelleEpine,onApril25,wereafterwardsshotdown,oneafteranother,bythecaptain,aworthymanofGallifet’s.Oneofhisfourvictims,leftfordead,Scheffer,crawledbacktotheParisianoutposts,anddeposedtothisfactbeforeacommissionoftheCommune.WhenTolaininterpellatedtheWarMinisteruponthereportofthiscommission,theRuralsdrownedhisvoiceandforbadeLeflotoanswer.Itwouldbeaninsulttotheir “glorious” armytospeakofitsdeeds.TheflippanttoneinwhichThiers’bulletinannouncedthebayonetingoftheFederals,surprisedasleepatMoulinSaquet,andthewholesalefusilladesatClamartshockedthenervesevenofthenotover-sensitiveLondonTimes.ButitwouldbeludicroustodaytoattemptrecountingthemerelypreliminaryatrocitiescommittedbythebombardersofParisandthefomentersofaslaveholders’rebellionprotectedbyforeigninvasion.Amidstallthesehorrors,Thiers,forgetfulofhisparliamentarylamentsontheterribleresponsibilityweighingdownhisdwarfishshoulders,boastsinhisbulletinsthatl’Assembleesiegepaisiblement(theAssemblycontinuesmeetinginpeace),andprovesbyhisconstantcarousals,nowwithDecembristgenerals,nowwithGermanprinces,thathisdigestionisnottroubledintheleast,notevenbytheghostsofLecomteandClementThomas.

1The Paris Commune

TheParisCommune

OnthedawnofMarch18,Parisarosetothethunder-burstof “VivelaCommune!” WhatistheCommune,thatsphinxsotantalizingtothebourgeoismind?

“TheproletariansofParis,” saidtheCentralCommitteeinitsmanifestoofMarch18, “amidstthefailuresandtreasonsoftherulingclasses,haveunderstoodthatthehourhasstruckforthemtosavethesituationbytakingintotheirownhandsthedirectionofpublicaffairs....Theyhaveunderstoodthatitistheirimperiousduty,andtheirabsoluteright,torenderthemselvesmastersoftheirowndestinies,byseizinguponthegovernmentalpower.”

Buttheworkingclasscannotsimplylayholdoftheready-madestatemachinery,andwielditforitsownpurposes.

Thecentralizedstatepower,withitsubiquitousorgansofstandingarmy,police,bureaucracy,clergy,andjudicature–organswroughtaftertheplanofasystematicandhierarchicdivisionoflabor–originatesfromthedaysofabsolutemonarchy,servingnascentmiddleclasssocietyasamightyweaponinitsstruggleagainstfeudalism.Still,itsdevelopmentremainedcloggedbyallmannerofmedievalrubbish,seignorialrights,localprivileges,municipalandguildmonopolies,andprovincialconstitutions.ThegiganticbroomoftheFrenchRevolutionofthe18thcenturysweptawayalltheserelicsofbygonetimes,thusclearingsimultaneouslythesocialsoilofitslasthinderancestothesuperstructureofthemodernstateedificeraisedundertheFirstEmpire,itselftheoffspringofthecoalitionwarsofoldsemi-feudalEuropeagainstmodernFrance.

Duringthesubsequentregimes,thegovernment,placedunderparliamentarycontrol–thatis,underthedirectcontrolofthepropertiedclasses–becamenotonlyahotbedofhugenationaldebtsandcrushingtaxes;withitsirresistibleallurementsofplace,pelf,andpatronage,itbecamenotonlytheboneofcontentionbetweentherivalfactionsandadventurersoftherulingclasses;butitspoliticalcharacterchangedsimultaneouslywiththeeconomicchangesofsociety.Atthesamepaceatwhichtheprogressofmodernindustrydeveloped,widened,intensifiedtheclassantagonismbetweencapitalandlabor,thestatepowerassumedmoreandmorethecharacterofthenationalpowerofcapitaloverlabor,ofapublicforceorganizedforsocialenslavement,ofanengineofclassdespotism.

Aftereveryrevolutionmarkingaprogressivephaseintheclassstruggle,thepurelyrepressivecharacterofthestatepowerstandsoutinbolderandbolderrelief.TheRevolutionof1830,resultinginthetransferofgovernmentfromthelandlordstothecapitalists,transferreditfromthemoreremotetothemoredirectantagonistsoftheworkingmen.Thebourgeoisrepublicans,who,inthenameoftheFebruaryRevolution,tookthestatepower,useditfortheJune[1848]massacres,inordertoconvincetheworkingclassthat “social” republicmeanstherepublicentrustingtheirsocialsubjection,andinordertoconvincetheroyalistbulkofthebourgeoisandlandlordclassthattheymightsafelyleavethecaresandemolumentsofgovernmenttothebourgeois “republicans.”

However,aftertheironeheroicexploitofJune,thebourgeoisrepublicanshad,fromthefront,tofallbacktotherearofthe “PartyofOrder” –acombinationformedbyalltherivalfractionsandfactionsoftheappropriatingclasses.Theproperformoftheirjoint-stockgovernmentwastheparliamentaryrepublic,withLouisBonaparteforitspresident.Theirswasaregimeofavowedclassterrorismanddeliberateinsulttowardsthe “vilemultitude.”

Iftheparliamentaryrepublic,asM.Thierssaid, “dividedthem[thedifferentfractionsoftherulingclass]least”,itopenedanabyssbetweenthatclassandthewholebodyofsocietyoutsidetheirspareranks.Therestraintsbywhichtheirowndivisionshadunderformerregimesstillcheckedthestatepower,wereremovedbytheirunion;andinviewofthethreateningupheavaloftheproletariat,theynowusedthatstatepowermercilesslyandostentatiouslyasthenationalwarengineofcapitalagainstlabor.

Intheiruninterruptedcrusadeagainsttheproducingmasses,theywere,however,boundnotonlytoinvesttheexecutivewithcontinuallyincreasedpowersofrepression,butatthesametimetodivesttheirownparliamentarystronghold–theNationalAssembly–onebyone,ofallitsownmeansofdefenceagainsttheExecutive.TheExecutive,inthepersonofLouisBonaparte,turnedthemout.Thenaturaloffspringofthe “PartyofOrder” republicwastheSecondEmpire.

Theempire,withthecoupd’etatforitsbirthcertificate,universalsuffrageforitssanction,andtheswordforitssceptre,professedtorestuponthepeasantry,thelargemassofproducersnotdirectlyinvolvedinthestruggleofcapitalandlabor.Itprofessedtosavetheworkingclassbybreakingdownparliamentarism,and,withit,theundisguisedsubserviencyofgovernmenttothepropertiedclasses.Itprofessedtosavethepropertiedclassesbyupholdingtheireconomicsupremacyovertheworkingclass;and,finally,itprofessedtouniteallclassesbyrevivingforallthechimeraofnationalglory.

Inreality,itwastheonlyformofgovernmentpossibleatatimewhenthebourgeoisiehadalreadylost,andtheworkingclasshadnotyetacquired,thefacultyofrulingthenation.Itwasacclaimedthroughouttheworldasthesaviorofsociety.Underitssway,bourgeoissociety,freedfrompoliticalcares,attainedadevelopmentunexpectedevenbyitself.Itsindustryandcommerceexpandedtocolossaldimensions;financialswindlingcelebratedcosmopolitanorgies;themiseryofthemasseswassetoffbyashamelessdisplayofgorgeous,meretriciousanddebasedluxury.Thestatepower,apparentlysoaringhighabovesocietyandtheveryhotbedofallitscorruptions.Itsownrottenness,andtherottennessofthesocietyithadsaved,werelaidbarebythebayonetofPrussia,herselfeagerlybentupontransferringthesupremeseatofthatregimefromParistoBerlin.Imperialismis,atthesametime,themostprostituteandtheultimateformofthestatepowerwhichnascentmiddleclasssocietyhadcommencedtoelaborateasameansofitsownemancipationfromfeudalism,andwhichfull-grownbourgeoissocietyhadfinallytransformedintoameansfortheenslavementoflaborbycapital.

ThedirectantithesistotheempirewastheCommune.Thecryof “socialrepublic,” withwhichtheFebruaryRevolutionwasusheredinbytheParisproletariat,didbutexpressavagueaspirationafterarepublicthatwasnotonlytosupercedethemonarchicalformofclassrule,butclassruleitself.TheCommunewasthepositiveformofthatrepublic.

Paris,thecentralseatoftheoldgovernmentalpower,and,atthesametime,thesocialstrongholdoftheFrenchworkingclass,hadriseninarmsagainsttheattemptofThiersandtheRuralstorestoreandperpetuatethatoldgovernmentalpowerbequeathedtothembytheempire.Pariscouldresistonlybecause,inconsequenceofthesiege,ithadgotridofthearmy,andreplaceditbyaNationalGuard,thebulkofwhichconsistedofworkingmen.Thisfactwasnowtobetransformedintoaninstitution.ThefirstdecreeoftheCommune,therefore,wasthesuppressionofthestandingarmy,andthesubstitutionforitofthearmedpeople.

TheCommunewasformedofthemunicipalcouncillors,chosenbyuniversalsuffrageinthevariouswardsofthetown,responsibleandrevocableatshortterms.Themajorityofitsmemberswerenaturallyworkingmen,oracknowledgedrepresentativesoftheworkingclass.TheCommunewastobeaworking,notaparliamentarybody,executiveandlegislativeatthesametime.

InsteadofcontinuingtobetheagentoftheCentralGovernment,thepolicewasatoncestrippedofitspoliticalattributes,andturnedintotheresponsible,andatalltimesrevocable,agentoftheCommune.Soweretheofficialsofallotherbranchesoftheadministration.FromthemembersoftheCommunedownwards,thepublicservicehadtobedoneatworkman’swage.Thevestedinterestsandtherepresentationallowancesofthehighdignitariesofstatedisappearedalongwiththehighdignitariesthemselves.PublicfunctionsceasedtobetheprivatepropertyofthetoolsoftheCentralGovernment.Notonlymunicipaladministration,butthewholeinitiativehithertoexercisedbythestatewaslaidintothehandsoftheCommune.

Havingoncegotridofthestandingarmyandthepolice–thephysicalforceelementsoftheoldgovernment–theCommunewasanxioustobreakthespiritualforceofrepression,the “parson-power”,bythedisestablishmentanddisendowmentofallchurchesasproprietarybodies.Thepriestsweresentbacktotherecessesofprivatelife,theretofeeduponthealmsofthefaithfulinimitationoftheirpredecessors,theapostles.

Thewholeoftheeducationalinstitutionswereopenedtothepeoplegratuitously,andatthesametimeclearedofallinterferenceofchurchandstate.Thus,notonlywaseducationmadeaccessibletoall,butscienceitselffreedfromthefetterswhichclassprejudiceandgovernmentalforcehadimposeduponit.

Thejudicialfunctionariesweretobedivestedofthatshamindependencewhichhadbutservedtomasktheirabjectsubserviencytoallsucceedinggovernmentstowhich,inturn,theyhadtaken,andbroken,theoathsofallegiance.Liketherestofpublicservants,magistratesandjudgesweretobeelective,responsible,andrevocable.

TheParisCommunewas,ofcourse,toserveasamodeltoallthegreatindustrialcentresofFrance.ThecommunalregimeonceestablishedinParisandthesecondarycentres,theoldcentralizedgovernmentwouldintheprovinces,too,havetogivewaytotheself-governmentoftheproducers.