Chapter 11 Outline the Americas on the Eve of Invasion

Chapter 11 Outline – The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

III.  The Postclassical Era

F.  The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

1.  Overview of Latin America during the postclassic period (450-1450)

-  Americas were totally isolated during this period, yet still developed an elaborate culture, with large cities, highly developed agriculture, and much diversity

-  By 1492 when Columbus arrived, Americas densely populated in many places

2.  Postclassic Mesoamerica (Central America), 1000 – 1500 C.E.

-  Toltec = Native Americans who dominated central Mexico from about 1000-1200, borrowing much of the culture from the Olmec and then Maya who had previously dominated the area

·  Though they were similar to Olmec and Maya, the Toltec never surpassed them intellectually

·  Toltec did add militaristic aspect to the culture (would emerge even more when Aztecs came)

a.  The Toltec Heritage

-  Topiltzen = Toltec priest who worshipped the god Quetzalcoatl (major Toltec god, later worshipped by Aztec), lost power struggle and fled, vowing to return and reclaim his throne

·  Toltecs created empire extending through central Mexico (capital was Tula) that extended to the Yucatan Peninsula

-  Toltec culture affected a vast amount of Native American, extending north into North America

·  Affected the Anasazi of New Mexico, who relied on trade with Toltec (when Toltecs fell, Anasazi did also)

·  Some believe Toltec influence reached as far east as Hopewell people of Mississippi valley (thrived 1200-1500, built huge burial mounds, city of Cahokia had over 30,000 residents)

b.  The Aztec Rise to Power

-  Toltec empire ended when invaded by nomads, like so many other empires fell in Mesoamerica

-  Aztec won a power struggle and rose to power after fall of the Toltec for several reasons

·  Aztec able to create alliances with others in the area through intermarriage and b/c Aztecs good fighters, and neighbors wanted to be allies with them

·  Those whose didn’t ally with them, they defeated in war

·  Aztecs spoke Nahuatl (language Toltecs had spoken, and the other tribes in the area spoke)

-  Aztecs were fanatical followers of their gods, to whom they made human sacrifices

·  Aztecs roamed around, and legend had it they would settle at a location where they saw an eagle perched on a cactus, which they did on a marshy island in Lake Texcoco

·  Tenochtitlan = city at center of Aztec power, formed 1325 on marshy island in Lake Texcoco

-  Once settled, Aztecs took more active role in regional politics

·  Became rich as mercenaries for others, and by taking tribute (wealth) from their conquests

·  By 1428, the Aztec were the major power in the region, and had gained much land and tribute

c.  The Aztec Social Contract

-  A social and political transformation had taken place

·  By conquering others, Aztec nobles gained power, and the Aztec ruler emerged w/supreme power, and eventually Aztecs so strong they controlled almost all of central Mexico

·  People they defeated had to pay tribute, surrender land, and do military service for Aztecs

-  As the Aztecs expanded and got more powerful, their society changed

·  Went from loose confederation of clans to highly stratified society with a powerful ruler

·  Human sacrifice was greatly expanded, with military providing captives to be used as victims

·  Aztec leaders used sacrifice as means of political terror over their neighbors

·  Before long, the Aztec state was dominated by king who had both political power and served as a representative of the gods on earth

d.  Religion and the Ideology of Conquest

-  Aztec religion much like previous religions in the region, especially took a lot from Toltec

·  While it could unite, Aztec religion (with many sacrifices) was oppressive and feared

·  Aztecs were polytheistic, with 100s of gods, including god of rain, fire, water, and the sun

·  Tlaloc = major Aztec god (god of rain), associated with fertility and agriculture

·  Huitzilopochtli = god associated with warfare and human sacrifice

·  Aztecs believed Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc were warriors fighting for the sun against darkness, and needed to sacrifice to help them accomplish this

·  Sacrifice long part of Mesoamerican culture but during postclassic period it expanded greatly

·  Nezhualcoyotl = Aztec king who had monotheistic views, though they never caught on

e.  Tenochtitlan: The Foundation of Heaven

-  Aztec capital was Tenochtitlan (island in Lake Texcoco), located where Mexico City is nowadays

·  Great metropolis with palaces and temples, residential districts and markets, and gardens

·  Population over 150,000 in 1519 – larger than Paris at the time

·  Connected to shore by 4 causeways and crisscrossed by canals with constant canoe traffic

·  Various clans each controlled a part of the city, caring for temples and buildings in their area

·  Tenochtitlan was 1 of 50 city-states in central Mexico at the time

f.  Feeding the People: The Economy of the Empire

-  Aztec combined traditional agriculture with new innovations to feed the people of Tenochtitlan

·  Chinampas = irrigation system of Aztecs; used beds of aquatic weeds and mud placed in frames and rooted to the lake’s floor, forming artificial floating islands 17 feet by 200 feet

·  Though floating islands main source of food, also got food through conquest

·  Chinampas used in pre-classic times to some extent, showing how culture built on earlier ones

·  Local clans divided up the land, some set aside for temples and the state

·  Some nobles had private estates, used peasants or slaves gotten from conquests to work land

·  Pochteca = merchant class, specialized in long distance trade in luxury items (like cacao)

·  Weekly markets would be set up using mostly a barter system (trade one item for another)

·  Markets highly regulated by inspectors or special judges

-  Government controlled resources and redistributed the tribute gotten from conquered peoples

·  Tribute payments included food, slaves, and sacrificial victims

·  When redistributing, nobles got a lot, and commoners received much less

3.  Aztec Society in Transition

a.  Widening Social Gulf

-  Calpulli = clans in Aztec society

·  Each calpulli controlled a different neighborhood in Tenochtitlan

·  Calpulli led by a council mad e up of heads of some of the families

·  Calpulli had important roles: distributed land, organized labor groups to get work done (especially maintaining a temple and school), and formed military units in times of war

-  Calpulli represented social stratification, but as empire grew, other forms emerged

·  Military and administrative nobles at top

·  Next were nobles who were from the top families in the top calpullis

·  Next were artisans and long-distance merchants, who sometimes were spies for military and helped collect tribute from conquered peoples

·  Next commoners who were part of a calpulli and owned their own land

·  Next a new group who were workers (almost like serfs) who worked noble’s land

·  Bottom were slaves who gotten through conquest or who sold themselves into slavery to avoid hunger)

b.  Overcoming Technological Constraints

-  Though Aztec women had some rights, they primarily ran household and were subordinate to men

·  Skilled weaving was highly regarded, and older women of the calpulli trained young ones

·  Marriages arranged, with peasants being monogamous while nobles practiced polygamy

·  Women could inherit property and pass it to their heirs

-  Aztec technology was limited, as they did not advance much beyond their predecessors in the area

·  Economy based on growing maize, but with limited technology it was very time consuming and required a lot of physical labor (by comparison, a miller or baker of Rome or medieval Europe could do the work of hundreds of Aztecs)

·  W/out the wheel or use of animal power, women spent 30-40 hours a week preparing food

-  Aztecs had an extremely high population density (possibly a population as many as 25 million), which helped Aztecs control and intimidate others

c.  A Tribute Empire

-  Ruler of Tenochtitlan had great power (basically an emperor), and was viewed almost as a god

·  Ruler had a Prime Minister who also had great power, and was usually relative of emperor

-  As time went on, and Aztecs expanded, social and political changes took place

·  The calpulli (clans) who used to have significant power, began losing power to the nobility and the ruler of Tenochtitlan

·  Religion stressed military virtues, and conquests continued

-  When Aztecs conquered an area, local rulers remained (mostly to control tribute taking for Aztecs)

·  If a conquered city-state accepted Aztec rule and paid tribute, they were basically left alone

·  There were many revolts against the Aztecs, but they were violently put down

-  Overall, Aztecs were like a militarized version of previous Mesoamerican civilizations

4.  Twantinsuyu: World of the Incas (Twantinsuyu = name for the Incan empire)

-  Located in the Andes Mountains, the Incan empire existed around same time as the Aztec

·  Incas created great bureaucracy that allowed them to control people of different cultures

a.  The Inca Rise to Power

-  Allyus = clans living near Cuzco who spoke Quechua

·  Pachacuti = Incan ruler (1438-1471) who united the allyus in Cuzco and started Incan empire

·  Over the next 60 years, Incan armies conquered more land, and empire stretched 3,000 miles, and included 9-13 million people, with different ethnic backgrounds and languages

b.  Conquest and Religion

-  There were many reasons for Inca expansion and conquest

·  Ancestor worship was very important to Inca, and deceased rulers were mummified and treated as intermediaries to the gods

·  Split inheritance = Inca ruler’s power went to successor, but property went to his male descendants, who used the wealth to preserve mummy of ruler (so each new Incan ruler wanted to expand to make sure had enough wealth to be preserved for eternity)

-  Religion played a big role in both politics as well as social life

·  Inca believed sun was highest deity (god), but worshipped other gods too (polytheistic)

·  Temple of the Sun = religious center in Cuzco, center of state religion, held mummies of the past Incas

·  Inca were animist, believing that nature was based on spiritual power

·  Huacas = holy temples where Incas prayed and offered animal and human sacrifices

·  These temples run by priests and women dedicated to providing cloth and food for sacrifice

c.  The Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule

-  Incas used techniques that ensured cooperation or subordination to rule vast empire

·  Empire ruled by the Inca (or ruler, who was viewed almost as a god)

·  Capital was Cuzco, and empire divided into 4 provinces, each with own governor

·  Developed a state bureaucracy in which almost all nobles had a role

·  Mostly allowed local autonomy (local leaders allowed to remain as long as loyal to Incas)

·  Curacas = local leaders that Incas allowed to stay in power, they were exempt from tribute obligations, and their sons were taken to Cuzco for education

·  Incas spread Quechua language to help unite empire

·  Empire had complex series of roads built, with bridges when needed

·  Tambos = way stations along roads, served as inns, storehouses, and supply centers for army, and also as relay station for the system of runners carrying messages

-  Inca got land and labor from those they conquered

·  Conquered people placed in Inca army, and were rewarded with goods for new conquests

·  Incas had large building and irrigation projects that formerly would have been impossible

·  State claimed all resources and land, and then redistributed them

-  When Incas conquered people, didn’t demand tribute (like Aztecs did), instead demanded labor

·  Mita = all communities expected to take turns working on state-owned land

·  Women required to weave high level cloth for court and religious purposes

·  Some women taken as concubines for the ruler, others selected as servants at the temples

·  Art had religious and political significance

·  Overall, Incas had successful empire, largely b/c remained sensitive to local ethnicities

-  Each community in Incan empire was self-sufficient, only relying on the state when needed

·  Most men were peasants and herders

·  Women worked in fields, wove cloth, and cared for the household (and the most beautiful of the young women chosen to work in the temples, or given to the Incan ruler)

·  Property rights passed through both men and women

·  Incan emphasis on military virtues reinforced inequality of men and women though

-  Local leaders left in place, but over them Inca administrators from Inca nobility in Cuzco

·  Incas provided roads and irrigation for the locals, and locals in turn gave labor to Incas

·  Incas dealt harshly with revolt and resistance

·  Yanas = class of people pulled from their communities to work for the ruler or the nobility

-  Inca nobility greatly privileged, and if they were related to the ruler, than in greatest position

·  Nobility drawn from one of the original 10 clans that made up Incan society

·  Residents of Cuzco given noble status so they could serve in high bureaucratic positions (nobles distinguished by dress and customs)

·  Unlike the Aztecs, there was no merchant class in Inca society (in Mesoamerica, long-distance trade very important, but not to Incas, whose communities were self-sufficient)

-  Eventually, Incas suffered from civil war, which was occurring as Europeans arrived in 1520s

d.  Inca Cultural Achievements

-  Inca drew on artistic tradition of their Andean predecessors

·  Incas very advanced at metalworking (using gold and silver), and use copper and bronze for weapons and tools

·  Didn’t have wheel (like Mesoamericans), and didn’t have writing (unlike Mesoamericans)

·  Quipu = system of knotted strings used by Inca in place of writing (used for numerical information such as keeping a census and to record financial records)