Theological Tendencies of Some Pauline Interpolations

Theological Tendencies of Some Pauline Interpolations

Much progress has been made in identifying interpolations in the Pauline letters, with the recent work of William O Walker Jr particularly notable. Research will surely continue,[1] but with what is already in hand, we may ask: Why were these interpolations made? Have any of them a common character, and does that common character suggest a motive for their addition? Among interpolations so far convincingly identified, I find that several do have a common character, and that their implied purpose was irenic: to compose tensions between Paul and a group of Christians whom I will call Alpha, whose view of salvation was not based on the Resurrection or on the Atonement interpretation of the Resurrection, which in our minds is associated with Paul. One way to reduce those tensions would have been to add to the genuine letters, most easily at the time they were first edited for general circulation, passages expressing Alpha doctrine, so that this earlier Christianity might seem to have a place in Pauline theology. The intent, then, would have been to widen the perceived character of Paul=s teaching, as it was to be transmitted.

Alpha Doctrine. Several canonical and other documents have this in common: they do not mention the Resurrection, even at points where such mention might be expected. Instead, they preach Christianity as Mark shows Jesus to have preached it B from a reinterpreted Jewish tradition. The Epistle of James has often been said to be more Jewish than Christian, in part because it does not quote Jesus. Yet Jesus himself (if we trust Mark) did not preach by quoting himself, but by quoting scripture in calling for a reform within Judaism which would move it away from its sacrificial focus and toward its ethical focus.[2] On the ethical side, Jesus was radical. In Mk 10:19 he spells out what he accepted of the Mosaic Decalogue, namely, half of it: five commandments plus a sixth against fraud.[3] Jesus rejected the Pharisaic Atraditions of the fathers,@ and Mk 3:6 attributes Jesus= death in part to the enmity of the Pharisees. AJames@ keeps exactly to that narrowed, but also revitalized, sense of the Law.[4] So does the Didache: its Eucharistic prayers thank God for Jesus B not for his death, but rather for his Ashowing the way to Life.@[5] The pre-Pauline hymn quoted in Philippians 2:6-11 sees Jesus as exalted in Heaven, but focuses on his exaltation, not his death.[6] These witnesses attest a vigorous and articulate Christianity which, at least at Philippi, was liturgically established, with is own hymnology, before the arrival of Paul.

Paul and Alpha. For the opposition between Paul and the Epistle of James (I here avoid the question of its authorship, and consider only its doctrinal position), we have very direct evidence. First, Paul in Romans:[7]

Rom 3:20-24. Because by works of the law shall no man be justified in his sight, for through the law cometh the knowledge of sin . . . through faith in Jesus Christ unto all them that believe . . . being justified freely by his grace through the redemption that is in Christ Jesus.@

Rom 4:1-3. What then shall we say that Abraham our forefather hath found according to the flesh? For if Abraham was justified by works, he hath whereof to glory, but not toward God. For what saith the scripture? And Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned unto him for righteousness.

and then the response of the Epistle:

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James 2:17-18. Even so faith, if it have not works, is dead in itself. Yea, a man will say, Thou hast faith and I have works: show me thy faith apart from works, and I by my works will show thee [my] faith.

James 2:19-24. Thou believest that God is one; thou doest well; the demons also believe and shudder. But wilt thou know, O vain man, that faith apart from works is barren? Was not Abraham our father justified by works, and by works was faith made perfect; and the scripture was fulfilled which saith, And Abraham believed God, and it was reckoned unto him for righteousness, and he was called the friend of God. Ye see that by works a man is justified, and not only by faith.

Much commentarial effort has been expended in explaining away this opposition, but I find the opposition to be manifest: AJames@ not only disputes the clearly stated position of Paul in Romans, but specifically ridicules Paul=s supporting example of Abraham.[8]

This is rather crisp. Nor was Paul himself a conspicuously forgiving opponent, as witness these remarks:

1 Cor 16:22 [following Paul=s signature]. If any man loveth not the Lord, let him be anathema.

Gal 1:9. As we have said before, so say I now again, if any man preacheth unto you any gospel other than that which ye received, let him be anathema.

This amounts to consigning Paul=s opponents (whoever one may suppose them to have been, in these passages) to eternal damnation. Oppositions in which Paul was involved tended to be heated oppositions.

The Apostolic Age effectively ended with the deaths of Paul (c60) and Peter (c64). Those events would have raised, in an insistent form, the question of how things were now to be managed, and what of the heritage of previous leadership was to go forward as approved for the Christian future. The hostility showed by Paul in the above quotes may well have seemed problematic to a movement also beset by formidable outside enemies: the Roman emperors, the traditional Jewish leadership, and the hierarchical Greco-Roman culture, which clashed with the radical egalitarian style of the Jesus movement churches. What to do?

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As to the first of these tensions, the theological confrontation between Paul and the no less heated Alpha spokesman AJames,@ I suggest that occasion was taken, when Paul=s letters were gathered and edited for general circulation, not to delete the anti-Alpha passages, but rather to include new passages which showed Paul himself as preaching Alpha doctrine, thus bringing the Alpha people within the circle of what, in future, would be scripturally recognized as Pauline Christianity.

I will illustrate this by considering three interpolations in the genuine Pauline letters, by which I believe that this irenic intention was carried out.

1. Romans 1:18-2:29

For a detailed argument for this interpolation, see Walker Interpolations 166-189. The intrusive nature of the passage is easily seen in the degree to which it differs from its surroundings, and the degree to which its surroundings knit together, when the suspect passage is removed. The suspect passage is here italicized:

Rom 1:17. For therein is revealed a righteous of God from faith unto faith: as it is written, But the righteous shall live by faith.

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[18]. For the wrath of God is revealed from Heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of men, who hinder the truth in unrighteousness, [19] because that which is known of God is manifest in them; for God manifested it unto them. [20] For the invisible things of him since the creation of the world are clearly seen, being perceived through the things that are made, [even] his everlasting power and divinity; that they may be without excuse: [21] because that, knowing God, they glorified him not as God, neither gave thanks, but became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened. [22] Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, [23] and changed the glory of the incorruptible God for the likeness of an image of corruptible man, and of birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things. [24] Wherefore God gave them up in the lusts of their hearts unto uncleanness, that their bodies should be dishonored among themselves: [25] for that they exchanged the truth of God for a lie, and worshipped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever, Amen. [26] For this cause God gave them up to vile passions: for their women changed the natural use into that which is against nature, [27] and likewise also men, leaving the natural use of the woman, burned in their lust one toward another, men with men working unseemliness, and receiving in themselves that recompense of their error which was due. [28] And even as they refused to have God in their knowledge, God gave them up unto a reprobate mind, to do those things which are not fitting; [29] being filled with all unrighteousness, wickedness, covetousness, maliciousness, full of envy, murder, strife, deceit, malignity; whisperers, [30] backbiters, hateful to God, insolent, haughty, boastful, inventors of evil things, disobedient to parents, [31] without understanding, covenant-breakers, without natural affection, unmerciful; [32] who, knowing the ordinance of God, that they that practice such things are worthy of death, not only do the same, but also consent with them that practice them. [2:1] Wherefore thou are without excuse, O man, whosoever thou art that judgest, for wherein thou judgest another, thou condemnest thyself; for thou that judgest dost practice the same things. [2] And we know that the judgement of God is according to truth against them that practice such things. [3] And reckonest thou this, O man, who judgest them that practise such things, and doest the same, that thou shalt escape the judgement of God? [4] Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering, not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to repentance? [5] But after thy hardness and impenitent heart treasurest up for thyself wrath in the day of wrath and revelation by the righteous judgement of God; [6] who will render to every man according to his works: [7] to them that by patience in well-doing seek for glory and honor and incorruption, eternal life; [8] but unto them that are factious, and obey not the truth, but obey unrighteousness, [shall be] wrath and indignation, [9] tribulation and anguish, upon every soul of man that worketh evil, of the Jew first and also of the Greek; [10] but glory and honor and peace to every man that worketh good, to the Jew first and also to the Greek, [11] for there is no respect of persons with God. [12] For as many as have sinned without the law shall also perish without the law, and as many as have sinned under the law shall be judged by the law; [13] for not the hearers of the law are just before God, but the doers of the law shall be justified: [14] (for when Gentiles that have not the law do by nature the things of the law, these, not having the law, are the law unto themselves, [15] in that they show the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience bearing witness therewith, and their thoughts one with another accusing or else excusing; [16] in the day which God shall judge the secrets of men, according to my Gospel, by Jesus Christ. [17] But if thou bearest the name of a Jew, and restest upon the law, and gloriest in God, [18] and knowest his will, and approvest the things that are excellent, being instructed out of the law, [19] and art confident that thou thyself art a guide of the blind, a light of them that are in darkness, [20] a corrector of the foolish, a teacher of babes, having in the law the form of knowledge and of the truth; [21] thou that teachest another, teachest thou not thyself? Thou that preachest a man should not steal, does thou steal? [22] Thou that sayest a man should not commit adultery, dost thou commit adultery? [23] Thou that abhorrest idols, dost thou rob temples? [23] Thou who gloriest in the law, though thy transgression of the law dishonorest thou God? [24] For the name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of you, even as it is written. [25] For circumcision indeed profiteth, if thou be a doer of the law, but if thou be a transgressor of the law, thy circumcision is become uncircumcision. [26] If therefore the uncircumcision keep the ordinances of the law, shall not his uncircumcision be reckoned for circumcision? [27] And shall not the uncircumcision which is by nature, if it fulfil the law, judge thee, who with the letter and circumcision art a transgressor of the law? [28] For he is not a Jew who is one outwardly, neither is that circumcision which is outward in the flesh, [29] but he is a Jew who is one inwardly, and circumcision is that of the heart, in the spirit not in the letter, whose praise is not of men, but of God.

3:1. What advantage then hath the Jew? or what is the profit of circumcision? Much every way. First of all, that they were entrusted with the oracles of God . . .

Argument for Interpolation. First, an interpolation should differ in some way from its context. Rom 1:18-2:29 differs from its context in that it speaks of repentance and salvation by works of the law, and does not mention faith, whereas the surrounding text insists that Aby the works of the law shall no flesh be justified in his sight@ (Rom 3:20). The means of salvation are different, and the means expounded in the suspected passage are denied in the surrounding text. The test by difference is thus met. Second, when an interpolation is removed (unless the interpolator has smoothed the edges), it should leave behind a consecutive text. Removing Rom 1:18-2:29 leaves:

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Rom 1:16. For I am not ashamed of the Gospel, for it is the power of God unto salvation to every one that believeth, to the Jew first and also to the Greek. [17] For therein is revealed a righteousness of God from faith unto faith: as it is written, But the righteous shall live by faith. [3:1] What advantage then hath the Jew? Or what is the profit of circumcision? [2] Much every way: first of all, that they were intrusted with the oracles of God. [3] For what if some were without faith? Shall their want of faith make of none effect the faithfulness of God? [4] God forbid; yea, let God be found true, but every man a liar, as it is written, That thou mightest be justified in thy words, and mightest prevail when you comest into judgement.