Chapter 15 A Voice in Decision Making: young children in Denmark
Stig Broström
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the life of young children. It views the child as an active and valid member of society, a democratic, communicating and participating person. The child is seen as a competent person, able to take part in and influence his or her daily life. Theoretical and practical examples are given, and the chapter explores not only how to bring up children as active democrats, but also how to encourage them to make use of their competences from an early age in order to contribute to society. The reader is encouraged to reflect on possibilities and problems surrounding the idea of young children’s participation and influence on society.
Society and democracy
In Western societies attempts are frequently made to understand the principle of democracy from one overall perspective. The German scholar Jürgen Habermas (1994) argues that to take capitalism at its own word, and to strive for a real democratic society, there are four rules for non-controlling communication; a communication in which understanding, truth, correctness and honesty are expressed.
From a social point of view like this, educational strategies aim at Bildung and democracy. The German concept Bildung (Klafki, 1998) offers an alternative or contrasting perspective to traditional ideas of socialisation. Instead of being socialized into the social system, accepting the rules of society without critical reflection, Bildung supports people in reflecting on the preconditions for what occurs around them and with them; it emancipates humans to be political subjects. This ambitious idea aims to make the world transparent for children. Thus, a Bildung based approach listens to children’s perspectives and gives them the possibility to influence their daily lives. Using the words of the American scholar Giroux, Bildung should
not only empower students by giving them the knowledge and skills they need to be able to function in the larger society as critical agents, but also educate them for the transformative action in the interest of creating a truly democratic society. (Giroux, 1988 pxxxiii)
Children are seen as active, competent subjects and thus the teacher supports the individual child’s initiatives, interests and perspectives. James et al, (1998) argue that societal changes during the last two or three decades have paved the way for the emergence of a new type of childhood, characterized first of all by individualization, often extended to include children’s responsibility for their own learning. This results in a more extensive democratic education and everyday life.
Early childhood legislation
Not only in Denmark but in all the Nordic countries, the democratic dimension is mentioned in the aims for children’s learning and development in preschool. In Denmark, the Daginstitutiosloven (2007) demands that day care centres must contribute to and support children’s understanding of democracy and integration into Danish society (Daginstitutionsloven, 2007).
The act emphasizes children’s right to be taken seriously and protected. Though children do not have their own official ombudsman, Denmark has established a Børneråd, children’s advisory board, which ensures that children’s voices are not only heard, but also correctly understood within the larger society.
Most important for the protection and promotion of children was the creation of the United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989). This landmark legislation delineated rights for children and expressed a vision and a hope for children the world over. Related to the theme of valuing children’s perspectives, the Convention specifies four fundamental and universal rights for children:
the right to survive
the right to develop to the fullest
the right to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and
the right to participate fully in family, cultural and social life
This legal foundation gives the opportunity for educators to create a theoretical and practical approach in promoting children’s influence and active participation in society.
Theoretical background for the communicating and participating child
Numerous childhood sociologists have described changes in various aspects of childhood’s structure and content. They look at childhood as a social construction and argue for the study of childhood, children’s relations, and children’s culture in their own right, rather than as a consequence of external social forces and influences (Brannen and O’Brien, 1995; James et al, 1998). Proponents of this perspective see children as whole and complete persons with their own status, needs and rights, and not as incomplete versions of the adults they will become. Thus children are not seen as incompetent human beings who have to go through a primary socialization to establish a fundamental trust or secure attachment before they can meet the outer world with new peers and adults. They are competent and ready to participate in social life, even as newborns (see for example, Trevarthen, 1998).
The importance of children’s views and voices has become a central theme in recent childhood education and forms the basis of the phrase the communicating and participating child.
The child as active participant
Embedded in the above understanding, children are seen as social agents, in other words as active participants in their own development and important contributors to society (Jensen and Schnack, 1997). Modern perspectives on childhood, coupled with a growing faith in children’s competence, and views of children as human beings rather than human becomings create potential pathways for children to participate in society. Where children are seen as competent, and contributing members of a democratic society having rights, in other words as active participants, teachers, politicians and parents are more willing to consider a child perspective. However, with reference to Qvarsell (2003), when educators and researchers talk about a child perspective, they may refer to one or other of two different orientations:
(a) they may focus their attention on the ways in which adults look at children and reflect on what they, as adults, perceive to be the children’s perspectives, or
(b) they may focus on how children look at their own world, their conditions and themselves (adapted from Qvarsell, 2003).
Thus, the concept child perspective encompasses how adults and society try to understand children’s lives, as well as how children themselves experience and describe their lives.
Throughout the 1990s researchers have attempted to capture the essential multi-sidedness of the concept. For example, the Finnish researcher Kerstin Strandell (1997) defined the children’s perspective as being concerned with:
both taking the child`s standpoint and listening to children from their position as children, and as an adult, imagining how children think in an effort to reduce the distance between the generations, which can hinder communication. (p19, author’s translation)
Thus, the child`s perspective must ultimately be defined as the adult’s attempt to understand, often through imagination, the thoughts and views children have of their own life. On a cultural-political level, the Danish Børneråd has actively sought out the child’s perspective by establishing a panel, made up of sixty fifth-grade classes with 1,225 children (aged about 11). In the period from 1998 to 2000, these children directly informed the Børneråd about their experiences, meanings and suggestions concerning topics related to children’s everyday life (Hviid, 2000). Earlier in 1994, thousands of children wrote letters to the Minister for Social Affairs, telling her their views on issues that concerned them (Heering, 1996). Children often described their family problems, and the Børneråd and the Minister corresponded with the children, giving them assurances that their voices had been heard. One positive outcome was the fact that the Børneråd implemented initiatives to reduce victimization in school. Such initiatives, where the children were visited to draw attention to their behaviour, have had a practical effect on children’s lives.
These examples represent children’s active involvement in a living democracy. The response of the Børneråd and the Minister for Social Affairs reflect the extent to which children’s active participation is truly valued and respected.
Recognition of the child
Societal and educational values concerned with listening to children and letting them have a say are also supported by the idea of recognition, which during the last decades has had a big impact on Danish early childhood education. According to the German philosopher, Axel Honneth (1995), without recognition the individual cannot develop a personal identity; it is a precondition for the individual’s self-realization, for a good life. For that reason, a democratic society has to offer citizens a fundamental recognition, expressed via three spheres and forms of recognitions, namely: love, rights and solidarity (Honneth, 1995).
In the private sphere, symmetrical relations such as love and friendship contribute towards the development of a basic self-confidence, a kind of emotional recognition. In early childhood education and care, attachment theories are used to elaborate this dimension. The Norwegian scholar, Berit Bae (2005), applies the concept of recognition to preschool practice. Emotional recognition leads to a secure attachment, basic confidence and, with that, physical integrity.
In the sphere of legal relations, individuals may use their legal universal rights, for example, freedom of expression as an active member of society, to foster self-respect and self-esteem. In preschool, this is seen when the child uses his or her legal rights to be seen and heard, to participate and influence. When such rights are realized, the individual gets a social integrity.
In the sphere of community of value, in what can usefully be described as cultural, political and working communities, individuals strive to become integrated members of a community with a shared sense of solidarity. When the subject is recognized as a special person, self-esteem will come into existence. In preschool such communities are seen in children’s play, in their mutual relations and in their shared exploration of the world. Here, children obtain a form of ‘honour’ dignity (Honneth, 1995 p129). In contrast, when a child is expelled from the community, when he again and again hears, `you are not allowed to take part`, he loses his self-esteem.
Adults and children have fundamental needs for recognition on all three levels: emotional attention, legal and social recognition. If individuals do not receive recognition, they will be at risk of failing to develop a positive view of themselves. The ideas outlined above are now taken forward through consideration of a case study of a family in Copenhagen.
A family in Copenhagen
Many, though not all children in Denmark are involved in the daily life in their family, crèche, preschool and school, where they are seen as active and independent individuals with their own ideas and wishes. A range of significant adults, such as parents and teachers, are willing to listen to and give them the opportunity to have their say, and thus a feeling of recognition.
These developments will be illustrated by studying a specific family in Copenhagen, focusing on 5-year-old Oskar, who lives in the quarter of Øresund, situated between Copenhagen city and the airport. Oskar’s father is a librarian at a Technical University and his mother works at a travel agency. Oskar has an 8-year-old brother Sebastian who attends grade 2 in the local school. They live in a city house with a shared yard where the children play and the families often meet together.
Family life is busy. Both parents have long working days and both pairs of grandparents pick up Oskar and his brother Sebastian twice a week from preschool and a local leisure-time centre. Thus both children are accustomed to daily communication about each family member’s daily experiences and are proactively involved in decisions. Thus family life is built on the ideas of democratic participation by all its members. In addition they all visit the nearby culture centre Amager Bio to watch theatre, film and participate in different workshops. Decision making can sometimes be problematic, when for example family members have different expectations about the best way to spend their leisure time. In order to resolve potential conflicts, importance is placed on openness, listening and the valuing of all family members` views. Conflicts do still develop, for example when conflict between sports and family events occurs, or when the two boys` play sessions arranged with friends clash with the parents` wishes. However, the ideal for such family communication is non-compelling action, in other words, the parents try to make use of the Habermas (1994) idea of communicative action.
Oskar’s life in preschool
In preschool the teachers see Oskar and his friends as individuals with the necessary level of competence to be involved in conversations, dialogues and decisions. Each day they hold both organized and open periods. The organized periods involve structured group activities where teachers and children focus on shared topics, for example, dance, song, drawing or literacy. The open periods call for children to be directly involved with their friends in decision making through the use of shared activities.
Oskar is a member of the group the longest legs containing all 5-year-old children, who will start school next year. During the year they decide on, and explore a range of themes and problems. In deciding on the themes, both teachers` and children’s voices are heard. The issues and problems arise out of the interaction between the children and their teachers. An example of this process is illustrated below. A teacher observed Oskar and another boy’s dialogue during lunch. When Oskar started to eat his bread with sausage, a boy from another ethnic background than Danish said:
`Ugh this food is unclean, why do you eat such food? My father says this is really unappetizing`
Quickly Oskar replied:
`Don’t speak about my food. `
And then he turned to a boy on his left side saying:
`I like this, me and my father eats this at home with roasted onion, ah, goody! `
The boys continued the dialogue and then it ran out. However, based on this situation the teacher suggested for the group of the longest legs the theme `me and my family`, thus giving the children the opportunity to explore each others` culture, norms and values and reflect on matters concerned with nationalism, east-west conflict etc. It is important to note how the teacher proactively uses the dialogue generated by the children and in doing so recognises and respects the individual contributions made to shape the project. This kind of activity can help to make the world transparent for the children, as outlined by Klafki (1998) and Giroux (1988).