MONTREAL PROTOCOL
ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE
THE OZONE LAYER
UNEP
2010 Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee
2010 Assessment
UNEP
2010 Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee
2010 Assessment
Montreal Protocol
On Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
UNEP
2010 Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee
2010 Assessment
The text of this report is composed in Times New Roman.
Co-ordination: Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat
Pumps Technical Options Committee
Composition: Lambert Kuijpers (Co-chair)
Formatting, Reproduction: UNEP Nairobi, Ozone Secretariat
Date: February 2011
No copyright involved
Printed in Kenya; 2011
ISBN 978-9966-20-002-0
DISCLAIMER
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) co-chairs and members, the Refrigeration AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, co-chairs and members, and the companies and organisations that employ them do not endorse the performance, worker safety, or environmental acceptability of any of the technical options discussed. Every industrial operation requires consideration of worker safety and proper disposal of contaminants and waste products. Moreover, as work continues - including additional toxicity evaluation - more information on health, environmental and safety effects of alternatives and replacements will become available for use in selecting among the options discussed in this document.
UNEP, the TEAP co-chairs and members, the Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee, co-chairs and members, in furnishing or distributing this information, do not make any warranty or representation, either express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness, or utility; nor do they assume any liability of any kind whatsoever resulting from the use or reliance upon any information, material, or procedure contained herein, including but not limited to any claims regarding health, safety, environmental effect or fate, efficacy, or performance, made by the source of information.
Mention of any company, association, or product in this document is for information purposes only and does not constitute a recommendation of any such company, association, or product, either express or implied by UNEP, the Technology and Economic Assessment Panel co-chairs or members, the Refrigeration, AC and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee co-chairs or members, or the companies or organisations that employ them.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The UNEP Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee acknowledges with thanks the outstanding contributions from all of the individuals and organisations who provided technical support to committee members. In developing this report, particularly the chapter lead authors were instrumental.
The names of chapter lead authors, co-authors and contributors are given at the start of each chapter. Addresses and contact numbers of the chapter lead authors and all other authors of the UNEP TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps can be found in Annex I.
The opinions expressed are those of the Committee and do not necessarily reflect the views of any sponsoring or supporting organisations.
Gratitude is expressed to UNEP’s Ozone Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya for the co-operation in formatting and styling of the report and for the reproduction of this report.
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2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report
UNEP
2010 Report of the
Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps
Technical Options Committee
2010 Assessment
Table of Contents
Key messages xii
Abstract Executive Summary 1
Executive Summaries of All Chapters 5
1 Introduction 16
1.1 Montreal Protocol Developments 16
1.2 The UNEP Technology and Economic Assessment Panel 20
1.3 The Technical Options Committee Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps 22
1.4 Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps 24
1.4.1 General Remarks 24
1.4.2 Long Term Options and Energy Efficiency 25
1.4.3 Set up of the 2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report 27
2 Refrigerants 30
2.1 Introduction 30
2.1.1 Refrigerant Progression 30
2.1.2 Unsaturated Hydrofluorochemicals 31
2.2 Data Summary 31
2.2.1 Ozone Depletion Potentials 38
2.2.2 ODP and GWP Data for Regulatory and Reporting Purposes 38
2.3 Status and Research Needs for Data 40
2.3.1 Thermophysical Properties 40
2.3.2 Heat Transfer and Compatibility Data 40
2.3.3 Safety Data 42
2.4 References 43
3 Domestic Refrigeration 50
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Options for New Equipment 50
3.2.1 Refrigerant Options 51
3.2.2 Not-In-Kind Alternative Technologies 52
3.2.3 Product Energy Efficiency Improvement Technologies 53
3.3 Options for Existing Equipment 54
3.3.1 Drop-In Conversion of In-Service Products 54
3.4 End-of-Life Conservation and Containment Concerns 55
3.5 Current Refrigerant Use 55
3.5.1 New Equipment Production 55
3.5.2 Field Service 56
3.5.3 Future Refrigerant Demand Implications 57
3.5.4 Future Refrigerant Emission Implications 57
3.6 References 58
4 Commercial Refrigeration 60
4.1 Introduction 60
4.2 Application 60
4.2.1 Equipment and Systems 60
4.3 options for new equipment 62
4.3.1 Stand-alone equipment 62
4.3.2 Condensing unit systems 65
4.3.3 Supermarket Systems 65
4.5 Options for Existing Equipment 70
4.9 References 72
5 Industrial systems 76
5.1 Introduction 76
5.2 Applications (including size of market, current practice, regional variations) 80
5.2.1 Food Processing 80
5.2.2 Cold Storage 80
5.2.3 Industrial Cooling in Buildings and IT Centres 81
5.2.4 Industrial Heat Pumps and Heat Recovery 81
5.2.5 Leisure 82
5.2.6 Process Refrigeration 82
5.3 Working Fluid Options for New Equipment 82
5.3.1 R-717 (Ammonia) 82
5.3.2 Hydrofluorocarbons 83
5.3.3 HCFC-22 84
5.3.4 Hydrocarbons 84
5.3.5 R-744 (Carbon dioxide) 84
5.3.6 R-718 (Water) 84
5.3.7 Absorption 85
5.4 Retrofit Options for Existing Equipment 85
5.4.1 Conversion to HFC Blends 85
5.4.2 Conversion to R-744 86
5.4.3 Conversion to R-717 86
5.4.4 Conversion to Hydrocarbon 86
5.5 Overview of Refrigerant Consumption, Banks and Emissions 86
5.6 Service Requirements 88
5.7 References 88
6 Transport Refrigeration 92
6.1 Introduction 92
6.2 Technical Progress 92
6.2.1 Merchant, Naval and Fishing Vessels 92
6.2.2 Road Transport 94
6.2.3 Railcars 95
6.2.4 Intermodal Containers 96
6.2.5 Small Containers and Boxes 97
6.3 Refrigerant Options for Existing Equipment 97
6.4 Refrigerant Options for New Equipment 98
6.5 Recovery, Reuse and Destructions of Refrigerants 100
6.6 Bank and Emission Data 100
6.7 References 104
7 Air-to Air Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps 106
7.1 Introduction 106
7.2 Applications 106
7.2.1 Small Self-Contained Air Conditioners 107
7.2.2 Non-ducted (or duct-free) Split Residential and Commercial Air Conditioners 107
7.2.3 Ducted, Split Residential Air Conditioners 108
7.2.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air Conditioners 109
7.3 Current Use of HCFC-22 110
7.3.1 Small Self-Contained Air Conditioners 110
7.3.2 Non-ducted Split Air Conditioners 110
7.3.3 Ducted, Split Residential Air Conditioners 111
7.3.4 Ducted Commercial Split and Packaged Air conditioner 111
7.3.5 HCFC-22 Bank 111
7.4 Options for New Equipment 111
7.4.1 Methodology 111
7.4.2 Single Component HFC Refrigerants 112
7.4.3 HFC Blends 112
7.4.4 Reduced GWP HFC Refrigerants and Blends 113
7.4.5 Hydrocarbon Refrigerants 115
7.4.6 R-744 116
7.4.7 Flammability Considerations 117
7.4.8 Not-in-Kind Alternative Technologies 117
7.5 Options for Existing Equipment 118
7.5.1 Service Blend Refrigerants 118
7.5.2 Retrofit Refrigerants 119
7.5.3 Anticipated Market Impact of Drop-in and Retrofit Refrigerants 119
7.5.4 Hydrocarbons as Conversion/Drop-in Refrigerants 119
7.6 High Ambient Considerations 120
7.6.1 R-410A in High Ambient Applications 120
7.6.2 HC-290 in High Ambient Applications 121
7.6.3 R-407C in High Ambient Applications 121
7.6.4 HFC-32 in High Ambient Applications 121
7.6.5 HFC-134a and HC-600a in High Ambient Applications 121
7.6.6 R-744 in High Ambient Applications 122
7.6.7 HFC Replacements for High Ambient Applications 122
7.7 References 122
8 Water heating heat pumps 128
8.1 Introduction 128
8.2 Types of Heat Pumps 128
8.2.1 Heat Pump Water Heaters (HPWH) 129
8.2.2 Space Heating Heat Pumps 129
8.2.3 Combined Space and Hot Water Heat Pumps 130
8.2.4 Capacity Ranges of Water and Space Heating Heat Pumps 130
8.3 Heat Pump Implications and Trends 130
8.3.1 Trends of Heat Pumps Replacing From Gas or Fuel Burning System 130
8.3.2 CO2 Heat Pump Water Heaters 131
8.4 Current Refrigerant Options for Water and Space Heating Heat Pumps 131
8.4.1 HCFC-22 132
8.4.2 HFC-134a and HFC blends R-407C and R-410A 132
8.4.3 Hydrocarbons 132
8.4.4 R-744 (Carbon Dioxide) 132
8.4.5 R-717 (Ammonia) 133
8.5 future refrigerant Options for New Heat Pumps 133
8.5.1 HFC-134a and HFC Blends R-407C and R-410A 134
8.5.2 HFC-32 134
8.5.3 HFC-1234yf and Other Low-GWP HFC Blends 134
8.5.4 R-744 (Carbon Dioxide) 135
8.5.5 Hydrocarbons 135
8.5.6 R-717 (Ammonia) 135
8.6 References 135
9 Chillers 138
9.1 Function of Chillers 138
9.2 Types of Chillers 138
9.2.1 Mechanical Vapour-Compression Chillers 138
9.2.2. Absorption Chillers 140
9.2.3 Chiller Capacity Ranges 141
9.3 Developments and Trends in Chiller Markets 142
9.3.1 Measures of Chiller Efficiency or Energy Use 142
9.3.2 Developments in the Market – Vapour-Compression Chillers 143
9.3.3 Developments in the Market – Absorption Chillers 144
9.4 Current Refrigerant Choices and Options for Mechanical Vapour-Compression Chillers 144
9.4.1 Positive Displacement Chillers 144
9.4.2 Centrifugal Chillers 146
9.5 refrigerant Options for New Chiller Equipment 146
9.5.1 Options for New Positive Displacement Chillers 147
9.5.2 Options for New Centrifugal Chillers 149
9.5.3 Issues with HCFC-123, HFC-134a, R-410A, and Other HFC Chiller Refrigerants 149
9.5.4 Alternatives to Vapour Compression Systems (Absorption Chillers) 150
9.6 Options for Existing Chiller Equipment 150
9.6.1 Positive Displacement Chillers 151
9.6.2 Centrifugal Chillers 152
9.6.3 Not-in-Kind Chiller Replacements – Absorption 152
9.7 Banks and Emissions Relating to Chillers 152
9.8 References 153
10 Vehicle Air Conditioning 156
10.1 Introduction 156
10.1.1 Regulatory Actions affecting Vehicle Air Conditioning and Refrigerants 156
10.2 Technical Progress 159
10.3 Existing Mobile Air Conditioning Systems 159
10.3.1 HFC-134a 159
10.3.2 Retrofit of CFC-12 systems 160
10.4 Options for Future Mobile Air Conditioning Systems 160
10.4.1 Passenger Car and Light Truck Air Conditioning 160
10.4.2 Bus and Rail Air Conditioning 164
10.5 References 165
11 Refrigerant Conservation 172
11.1 Introduction 172
11.2 Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation 173
11.3 Refrigerant Recovery and Recycling Equipment 173
11.4 Technician Training and Service Certification 174
11.5 Refrigerant Reclamation, Separation, Destruction 175
11.5.1 Reclamation and Separation 175
11.6 Equipment Design and Service 178
11.6.1 Design 179
11.6.2 Charge Minimising 179
11.6.3 Installation 179
11.6.4 Servicing 179
11.6.5 Reduction of Emissions through Leak Tightness 180
11.7 Direct Regulation as a Means of Refrigerant Conservation 181
11.7.1 Financial Incentives 182
11.7.2 Required Service Practices and Leak Tightness 183
11.7.3 Restrictions on the sales and imports of ODSs 184
11.8 End-of-life 185
11.9 Examples of Conservation Approaches 185
11.9.1 Africa 185
11.9.2 South America 187
11.9.3 China 188
11.9.4 United States 188
11.9.5 Japan 188
11.10 Article 5 Issues 189
11.11 References 190
Annex 1 – Authors, Co-authors and Contributors to the 2010 RTOC
Report 192
Annex 2: - Excerpt of the Final Report on Global inventories of the worldwide fleets of refrigerating and airconditioning equipment in order to determine refrigerant emissions. The 1990 to 2006 updating. 1
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2010 TOC Refrigeration, A/C and Heat Pumps Assessment Report
Key messages
§ The required global phase-out of HCFCs, and the need to manage the lifetime operation of CFC- and also HCFC-based equipment, coupled with concerns to reduce global warming, drive transition from ozone depleting substance (ODS) refrigerants. The technical options are universal, but local laws, regulations, standards, economics, competitive situations and other factors influence regional and local choices.
§ More than 60 new refrigerants, many of them blends, were introduced for use either in new equipment or as service fluids (to maintain or convert existing equipment) since the 2006 assessment report. The primary focus for examination of new refrigerants is on unsaturated hydrofluorocarbons and unsaturated hydrochlorofluorocarbons. The overarching climate change issue as well as changing refrigerant options for refrigeration and air conditioning will continue to advance equipment innovations. HFCs and non-fluorochemical options are increasingly used in most sectors, with emphasis on optimising system efficiency (expressed as Coefficient of Performance - COP) and reducing emissions of high Global Warming Potential (GWP) refrigerants.
§ There are several low and medium GWP alternatives being considered as replacements for HCFC-22. These include lower GWP HFC refrigerants (HFC-32, HFC-152a, HFC-161, HFC-1234yf and other unsaturated fluorochemicals, as well as blends of them), HC-290 and R-744 (CO2). HC-290 and some of the HFC refrigerants are flammable and will need to be applied in accordance with an appropriate safety standard. A high degree of containment applies to all future refrigerant applications, either for decreasing climate impact or for safety reasons. The latter aspect will also increase the need to advance charge reduction technologies.
§ In commercial refrigeration stand-alone equipment, hydrocarbons (HCs) and R-744 are gaining market shares in Europe and in Japan; they are replacing HFC-134a, which is the dominant choice in most countries. In many developed countries, R-404A and R-507A have been the main replacements for HCFC-22 in supermarkets, however, because of their high GWP, a number of other options are now being introduced. Indirect systems are the most effective option for emissions reductions in new centralised systems for supermarkets. In two stage systems in Europe, R-744 is used at the low-temperature level and HFC-134a, R-744 and HCs at the medium temperature level.
§ In industrial refrigeration, R-717 (ammonia) and HCFC-22 are still the most common refrigerants; R-744 is gaining in low-temperature, cascaded systems where it primarily replaces R-717 (ammonia), though the market volume is small.
§ In air-to-air air conditioning, HFC blends, primarily R-410A, but to a limited degree also R-407C, are still the dominant near-term replacements for HCFC-22 in air-cooled systems. HC-290 is also being used to replace HCFC-22 in low charge split system, window and portable air conditioners in some countries. Most Article 5 countries are continuing to utilise HCFC-22 as the predominant refrigerant in air conditioning applications.
§ Up to now, car manufacturers and suppliers have evaluated several refrigerant options for new car (and truck) air conditioning systems including R-744, HFC-152a and HFC-1234yf, all with GWPs below the EU threshold of 150. These options can achieve fuel efficiency comparable to the existing HFC-134a systems with appropriate hardware and control development. The use of hydrocarbons or blends of hydrocarbons has also been considered but so far has not received support from vehicle manufacturers due to safety concerns. The eventual decision which refrigerant to select for vehicle air conditioning will be made based on the GWPs of the above three options along with additional considerations including regulatory approval, costs, system reliability, safety, heat pump capability and servicing.