Smith 1

Meghan Smith

Mr. Kantor

AP English IV 2B

23 September 2005[SK1]

Oh My Wyrd![SK2]

The heroic lay Beowulfby Seamus Heaney explores[SK3] the Anglo-Saxon concept of wyrd, or fate. In particular, the poem elucidates whether God, man himself, or a combination of the two ultimately controls the destiny of mankind on earth.[SK4]Attempting to define the enigmatic wyrd, critics contend that the influence of Judeo-Christian elements such as freewill alchemically[SK5] combine with pagan tradition to makewyrd into a fatalistic manifestation of God’s will or judgment. Within this system, the scop(s), or poet (hereafter referred to as singular, although probably plural), discloses God’s rewards for those whose actions demonstrate honor and good judgment. Likewise, the scop warns his audience that God rains punishment and misfortune upon the imprudent figures of the poem; his admonitions graphically demonstrate the devastation resulting from egotistical pride[SK6]. Despite the direct intervention of an undeniably Judeo-Christian deity, Beowulf expresses that man ultimately determines his own fate by choosing whether to honor his people in accordance with the Germanic warrior code comitatus or to allow hubris to overcome him and selfishly seek his own welfare.[SK7]

As a culmination of centuries’ long infiltration of Judeo-Christian influence into Scandinavian culture, the recorded version of Beowulf displays[SK8] a synthesis of pagan fatalism[SK9]—characterized by wyrd, man’s inevitable death and the esteem with which his peers regard him—and the Judeo-Christian doctrine of the individual exercising moralistic free will. For instance, Beowulf orders Hrothgar not to mourn his death should he fall in battle with Grendel and stoically concludes,[SK10] “Fate goes ever as fate must” (Heaney line 455). His words suggest the existence of fate as a singular, inevitable figure in and of itself; however, the words of obligation indicate that wyrd submits itself to a greater force. Moreover, Andrew Galloway[SK11] remarks that Anglo-Saxon heroic choice exists only ironically—in the word (ge)ceosan, translated as “chooses the deathbed”—and implies that heroism only exists in an unflustered acceptance of fate: “The phrase ‘chooses the deathbed’ uses the verb in its most specialized and restricted sense, for death is precisely what a hero does not choose…” (198)[SK12]. Galloway confirms that in Anglo-Saxon culture prior to the infiltration of Judeo-Christianity,the lack of individual choice renders stoicism a primary heroic trait. However, as he recounts a tale defending his valor against the accusations of the boastful Unferth, Beowulf implies that he has some responsibility for surviving the ordeal in the sea: “Often, for undaunted courage,/ fate spares the man it has not already marked” (Heaney lines 572-573).[SK13] Although fate remains an omnipresent and predetermined force, it spares Beowulf as a result not only of its subordination to the aforementioned higher power, but also in an approving acknowledgement of the man’s steadfastness in battle; thus, Beowulf plays an undeniable role in his continued existence. Furthermore, the critic Susanne Weil reveals that by the time the scop recorded Beowulf, a translation of Boethius’ The Consolation of Philosophy had equated the Anglo-Saxon wyrd to the Latin fatum; she expounds upon the relevance of this fact by summarizing the ingenious solution to the Christian problem of an omnipotent, omniscient God in a system of a freewill offered by Lady Philosophy in that work[SK14]:

…God does not create fate and that, therefore, men have free will. She argues that since God is greater than time, necessarily true if God is omnipotent, for he is outside of time. Thus, he sees our lives in their entirety, as completed works…God sees what we will do without forcing us to do it…What the Boethian system emphasizes is that part of being all-powerful is having the power not to exercise your power—to leave your creatures free to act on their own initiative (103).[SK15]

The Boethian postulate concerning freewill does not contradict Beowulf’s conviction of his role in his own survival; rather, it supports and enriches the proposition of human responsibility. Thus, the Judeo-Christian understanding of freewill does not usurp the pagan understanding of wyrd but furthers the Norse audience’s understanding of this quasi-contradictory concept. Finally, as Beowulf senses his imminent death in the last third of the tale, the narrator speaks religiously of the fate that carries the hero’s inevitable doom: “His fate hovered near, unknowable but certain…” (Heaney line 2421). To an audience well-versed in Judeo-Christian sentiment, the latter part of this phrase resembles an epithet[SK16] for God; such an interpretation implies that man operates under fate, a force of the Judeo-Christian God described by Boethius’ Lady Philosophy.[SK17]

In accordance with the merit of each man and particularly of each ruler, God bestows rewards of longevity and honor that manifest themselves in the fates of their recipients. In order to receive such divine boons, man must live in accordance with comitatus and only exact wergild—Old English for man-price—when absolutely necessary and with justice. For example, after boasting to his thanes that he will fight Grendel without weapons, Beowulf exhibits confidence in God’s redemption of himself, the worthier combatant: “And may the Divine Lord/in His wisdom grant the glory of victory/to whichever side he sees fit” (ln 685-687); the narrator later affirms that same Lord’s intention to spare Beowulf and his thanes in reward for his integrity: “…the Lord was weaving/a victory on his war-loom for the Weather-Geats./Through the strength of the one they all prevailed;/they would crush their enemy and come through in triumph and gladness” (ln 696-700). The scop likens the Judeo-Christian God to Lachesis, the second Fate of Greek mythology who weaves the threads of life together into a rich and diverse tapestry; in contrast to the Greek goddess, God shapes their fates in consideration of the leader’s wise choices rather than in accordance with the whim of himself or a higher power. Beowulf and his thanes merit the reward of victory God bestows on them because of the leader’s willingness to make even their nation’s debt to Hrothgar. Likewise, Arthur E. DuBois concurs that God rewards his subjects, expounding upon the topic in a sermon concerning the characters’ usage of their God-given talents:

Wyrd, the lesser fate, is the destiny of man…It is avertable by God or by man through good works. It is controlled absolutely by the greater fate, God, who judges works…God gives men large gifts such as wealth, power, or wisdom. He endows Beowulf, for example, with wisdom and with strength…These endowments are not good in themselves, but good only as a means to an ends. They are to be used… (395)

Thus, God rewards Beowulf and his entourage not simply for the commendable and brave action of defending Hrothgar and his nation against a great and terrible fiend; Beowulf gains victory through God’s aid because he has chosen to use his gifts to help others. Moreover, after Beowulf attributes his defeat of Grendel and of the monster’s mother to the intervention of the Almighty God, Hrothgar delivers the ultimate praise to the hero: “‘A protector of his people is entitled to affirm that this man/was born to distinction. Beowulf, my friend,/ your fame has gone far and wide, you are known everywhere’” (ln 1700-1704). In granting Beowulf this outstanding victory, God also confers upon him the immense honor of immortality in the Scandinavian sense: the world over recognizes the man as a great hero and warrior, one who rights wrongs and defends nations. Beowulf incurs these God-given honors as a result of his own decision to aid Hrothgar and his people in orderto honor the warrior code and take full advantage of his fabled strength. Likewise, Weil confirms the significance of a man’s reputation and elucidates its fundamental connection towyrd:

…a man’s reputation was as integral to his fate as the time and place of his death: that reputation was Anglo-Saxon immortality. Call it God’s providence or…wyrd: an arrow by any other name would kill you. Your choice, then, was whether you took that arrow in the back or head on…Your reputation at death even affected your family’s future…most important, it was a matter of personal honor to be remembered as a man of courage. It would be a good fate, indeed the best, to die gloriously in the protection of your people as Beowulf does…Bravery in extremity, grace under pressure: these are choices, and these a man could shape. (96)

Because Beowulf fights to defendhis people against forces that would harm or destroy them, he gains a reputation as a terrific hero who chooses to protect his subjects in spite of the indubitable risk ofhis life. Additionally, the manner in which the poet informs the audience of divine intervention on the hero’s behalf after his sword shatters while battling Grendel’s mother scorns subtlety:

It was easy for the Lord,/…to redress the balance/once Beowulf got back up on his feet./ Then he [Beowulf] saw a blade that boded well,/ a sword in her armory, an ancient heirloom/from the days of the giants, an ideal weapon,/ one that any warrior would envy,/but so huge and heavy of itself/ only Beowulf could wield it in battle. (ln 1554-1562)

God commends the hero for his loyalty to the warrior code that demands he avenge Aeschere’s death with that of Grendel’s mother and aids the champion in a spectacular display of the traditional epic device of deus ex machina.

Through the intricate tapestry of wyrd,the Judeo-Christian God of Beowulf smites those who, because of hubris, act in a manner that furthers their own well-being more than that of their people. For instance, the narrator reveals Hrothgar’s motive for erecting the beautiful hall that incurs Grendel’s wrath:

The fortunes of war favored Hrothgar./…So his mind turned/to hall-building: he handed down orders for men to work on a great mead hall,/ meant to be a wonder of the world forever;/it would be his throne room…Then a powerful demon, a prowler through the dark,/nursed a hard grievance. It harrowed him/ to hear the din of the loud banquet/every day in the hall…” (ln 64, 67-71, 86-89)

Satisfied with the glory and success enjoyed in his youth, Hrothgar orders his people to build Heorot, a mead-hall of epic proportion, in his honor and dispenses his favor from the comfort of a gigantic throne; the God-cursed Grendel attacks the fabled site out of spite. However, the scop’s interpretation of God insinuates that He allows the Half-Danes to suffer because of the pride of their ring-giver. Similarly, DuBois expounds upon the nature of God’s punishment for Hrothgar: “Grendel is a punishment for his weakness, for pride requiring humiliation, unguarded overconfidence in apparent security, and consequent impotence in time of stress” (398). Thus, God also demands retribution from Hrothgar because he deliberately allows hubris to distract him from adequately serving and protecting his people. Moreover, in a discussion of king Hygelac the Great, Beowulf’s predecessor, the poet insinuates that God’s judgment plays a role in the wyrd of the domineering king: “Fate swept him away/because of his proud need to provoke/a feud with the Frisians” (1205-1207). In this instance, Hygelac the Great suffers the Lord’s displeasure for choosing to place his own desire to plunder the Frankish territories above the protection of his people from conflict with dangerous neighboring clans. Additionally, DuBois discloses the nature of Beowulf’s crime that eventually causes him to fall from divine favor:

Beowulf’s fault is partly that…he allows treasure to lie useless and partly that in his unguardedness he can be surprised by the raging dragon…his fault is originally similar to Hrothgar’s, a result of overconfident pride and careless sloth leading to a debasement of the Geats…the shrillest, newest note in the description of Beowulf’s [fault] is upon avarice, preferring national wealth to national strength and immortality, and properly punished bya conventional monstrous miser. (401)

In his senility, Beowulf slackens his hold on the regulation of his kingdom; additionally, once he hears of the dragon’s hoard, he finds it necessary to personally pursue this treasure, despite the fact that it will inevitably result in his death and his nation’s downfall. Like Hygelac and Hrothgar before him, Beowulf suffers as a result of his own lack of vigilance and the folly of consideringthe well-being of his people secondary to his own wealth and reputation. Consequently, the Judeo-Christian God abandons his champion as he battles the churlish dragon: “Unyielding, the lord of his people loomed/by his tall shield, sure of his ground, while the serpent looped and unleashed itself/…Yet his shield defended/ the renowned leader’s life and limb/ for a shorter time than he meant it to:/ that final day was the first time/ when Beowulf fought and fate denied him/ glory in battle” (2566-2575); later, to reaffirm God’s desertion of the hero even after a comrade returns to him, “Inspired again/ by the thought of glory, the war-king threw/his whole strength behind a sword stroke/and connected with the skull. And Naegling snapped./Beowulf’s ancient iron-gray sword/let him down in the fight” (2677-2681). In his hour of greatest need, God first refuses to protect Beowulf by allowing the dragon to breach the shield before allowing Beowulf’s trusted sword to cleave in two; the scop emphasizes that fate—a force largely governed by God—disappoints him in this instance only, implying that one or more factors differentiate this fight from those in which Beowulf gains victory. The elusive difference lies in the relaxed, slothful, and proud mentality that corrupts the great ruler in his old age, and in the aged hero’s proud choice to fight the dragon in order to gain material wealth for his people.

The tragic epic poem Beowulf proposes that although the Judeo-Christian God administers judgment and reward to his subjects, these subjects control their own wyrd by choosing either to honor and protect those to whom they give allegiance or to arrogantly disregard the welfare of others in favor of their own fortune or reputation. Foremost, as a fatalistic manifestation of the judgment of the Judeo-Christian God, wyrd gives the individual the freedom to make his own choices and holds him responsible for these actions. Moreover, within the realm of His control of wyrd, the Judeo-Christian deity requites the deserving hero with accolades according to the worthiness and honor of his choices. Likewise, this same God smites the flawed men entrusted with leadership who choose vanity over the well-being of those comitatus demands they defend. Like any other mythology, the Anglo-Saxon Christianity of Beowulf grants man the bittersweet privilege of responsibility for his own actions, instilling in him a desire to treat sovereign and thane with alike respect and humanity lest he suffer divine displeasure.

Works Cited

Du Bois, Arthur E. “The Unity of Beowulf.” PMLA 49 (1934): 374-405.

Galloway, Andrew. “Beowulf and the Varieties of Choice.” PMLA105 (1990): 197-208.

Heaney, Seamus, trans. Beowulf. New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company, 2000.

Weil, Susanne. “Grace Under Pressure: ‘Hand-Words,’ ‘Wyrd,’ and Free Will in ‘Beowulf.’” PacificCoast Philology 24 (1989): 94-104.

[SK1]Proper MLA heading

[SK2]Cute, clever title

[SK3]Present tense

[SK4]The first two sentences pronounce her General Topic, the “What” section of her paper. The reader knows ‘what’ her paper is about.

[SK5]“alchemically” = interesting yet powerful word choice.

[SK6] This middle section of the opening paragraph is known as the “How” section. Here, the reader will understand ‘how’ the author will support her General Topic statement/s.

[SK7]The opening paragraph is summed up beautifully via what most people term the Thesis Statement. It’s quite obvious that Ms. Smith has done her research and has labored quite effectively in order to produce such an informative opening paragraph. This sentence is known as the “Why” section of the paper, for it details ‘why’ the General Topic is important.

[SK8]Staying with present tense throughout

[SK9]Reiterating her main point without redundancy.

[SK10]This first primary quote is introduced with substance; it’s quite an informative introduction.

[SK11]Since this is the first mention of Andrew Galloway as a secondary source, his article or book title should be mentioned along with his name; this adds credibility to a non-household name.

[SK12]Since the author’s name is in the quote’s introduction, it is not needed in the citation.

[SK13]This second Primary quote in the formula Primary-Secondary-Primary-Secondary-Primary follows excellent transitional phrases and vocabulary.