American Culture and Reform (C. 1800 - 1860)

American Culture and Reform (c. 1800 - 1860)

Religion

Deism
clockwork universe
God created the world and the laws that govern it
allows events to happen without His interference
the use of reason helps man to find these laws
Jefferson, Franklin, and other like them were Deists
Thomas Paine's The Age of Reason
not very popular, as it attacks organized religions, especially Calvinism
says that churches are set up to terrify and enslave man, monopolizing power and profit
states that human nature is good and that salvation is attainable through faith and good works
Calvinism
infant damnation
the "elected" are the select few chosen to be saved
Unitarianism
philosophy of Deism
believe in supreme being, free will, salvation through good works, and the morally good nature of man
appeals to intellectuals
optimistic
Episcopal
associated with the Church of England
Presbyterian
Irish and Scots
Congregationalist
often merge with Presbyterians in small communities
the religious landscape is changing throughout the nation

Romantic Movement

started at the turn of the 19th century
expresses the European and American idea that there's more to life than material things
they wanted "balanced reason", as a reaction to the Age of Reason's strict focus on only reason
Kant's Critique of Pure Reason, 1781, was one important source
poets, authors, and other writers took his ideas, giving importance to the soul as well as reason
revered nature, believing that contemplation of natural scenes can lead to the discovery of fundamental truths

Transcendentalism

formalize Romanticism
becomes almost a faith for some
fuses Romanticism and mysticism
fueled by the newly translated Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic texts
it also incorporated some Quaker doctrine, that the "inner light" is the gift of God's grace
they believe that all people have this "inner light", and that this inner light can illuminate and put each person in touch with God, the "oversoul"
it's about self, with little regard for dogma or authority
Ralph Waldo Emerson
he was studying to become a Unitarian minister, but stopped
went to Europe to travel and learn
he returned to America and began developing an American literature and artistic tradition
he is an inspiration for a truly American literature
no longer does American literature rely on Europe
preaches the philosophy of the "Oversoul" and an ever-changing universe
he preaches individualism, optimism, and freedom
his beliefs lead him to become an ardent abolitionist and women's rights supporter
Henry David Thoreau
a student of Emerson
writes essays that profoundly affected modern thought
he preaches individualism and non-conformity
"Walden: A Life in the Woods" and "Duty of Civil Disobedience" are two of his works
he was against the war with Mexico and Texas joining as a slave state
his idea of passive resistance will be emulated by Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.

Birth of American Literature

Romanticism encourages writing with emotions, not just reason
Irving, Poe, Cooper, Thoreau, Hawthorne, Melville, Whitman are some examples
America is now looked upon, for the first time, as a source of ideas and literary inspiration

Second Great Awakening

Timothy Dwight
President of Yale College
calls Yale a "hotbed of infidelity", saying that the "secular trend" is causing him concern
sponsors religious revivals to fight the "collective soul" of the Yale student body
the revivals spread throughout New England
in the First Great Awakening, the theme was damnation, fire and brimstone
in the Second Great Awakening, the theme is more about the goodness of God, and how all can share in His glory
one needs only to believe to be saved
these ideas spread across America
camp meetings
large numbers of people gather to sing, praise, etc.; they are happy and optimistic gatherings
they are held after the harvest
25,000 people are at some of these - they are intense and involved
segregated companion revivals
blacks go to different meetings
begins a long tradition of enthusiastic, shouting, singing, etc. gatherings
spiritual, social and political cohesion is difficult for blacks to achieve in the time leading up to the Civil War
role of women
this events give them a more active role outside of the house
they gain an increased involvement in the spiritual parts of their communities
William Miller and the Millerite Movement
100,000 followers
he predicted the Second Coming of Christ to be on 2 Oct, 1844; even when it didn't happen, his movement continued
they become known as Seventh-Day Adventists
Finney
master of showmanship and participatory psychology
he told people to gather as a community

Utopian Movements

an early form of socialism
cooperative 1800s communities that were experiments in alternate community organization along Christian Scriptural guidelines
not a new idea - the Puritans had tried this, too
failed to thrive in America's capitalistic climate
for most, they collapse after the loss of the founder and the original driving spirit
New Harmony, Indiana 1855
founded by Robert Owen
perished early, because of a "lack of harmony among the participants"
Brook Farm, Massachusetts
a Transcendental literary haven
suffered from indebtedness, lack of incentive to work, and a disastrous fire
wealth was shared equally, resulting in that lack of incentive to work
Hawthorne's Bilthedale Romance was written about Brook Farm
Shaker Communities
started by Anne Lee, English, arrived in America in 1774 and died the same year
they advocated strict sexual abstinence, as they saw no reason to perpetuate the human race given the imminent end of the Christian millennium
they had an admitted simplicity, as seen in designs on art and furniture
there were 20 by 1830, 6000 by 1840
these groups will exist for 100 years, dwindling slowly
their rule of celibacy and communal property discouraged converts
they had high ideals and lacked controversial practices, allowing them to live in harmony with their neighbors, unlike, for example, the Mormons' practice of polygamy
created a product and engaged in commerce, helping them to survive
Oneida
manufacturers of silverware
they practiced free love, birth control, and eugenic selection of parents, causing problems with neighboring groups
founded in New York by Noyes, with several smaller communities in surrounding states
Bible Communism
selfishness is the root of unhappiness
property and exclusive relationships breed selfishness
so, they share property
"complex marriage" - every woman is married to every man
share work equally
they support their community with the production of silverware
in 1879 they gave up complex marriage and became a joint stock company
thus, a communist utopia became a huge capitalistic corporation
Mormonism
founded by Joseph Smith in New York in 1830
today it is known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
because of their beliefs, they were forced to move from New York, though various states, and eventually to Utah
founded Nauvoo, Illinois in 1839, and it became the largest city in that state for a while
rumors of polygamy led to Smith and his brother's arrests; they were killed by a mob while in jail
Brigham Young led them to Salt Lake City, where they developed and grew
they became a major, but not understood, religion
Utah became a state in 1896; their admittance had been delayed by the issue of polygamy

Reform

reform was the touchstone of the 19th century
the first reforms were religious and philosophical; social and political reform would follow from the change in people's minds

Humanitarian Reform

a defining characteristic of this era was that women played leading roles in reforming society
they are starting to step out of the house
they were especially involved with humanitarian reforms, among others
schools for the deaf
first one was opened in Paris, France by a Yale graduate
his son founds one in Connecticut in 1817
a school for the blind and deaf was also opened
previously, these disabled people were put in penitentiaries/reformatories which were essentially jails; they were not cared for at all
prison reform
criminals, debtors, and the insane had all been locked together in one room
now, efforts are made to change the situation
leads to experimenting in solitary confinement, strict rules of silence; the idea is to give time to think over mistakes and become penitent
1821 - Kentucky becomes first state to abolish imprisonment for debt - you can't pay off debt while in jail
hospitals are established for the mentally and physically impaired
Dorothea Dix abandoned her successful teacher career in 1841 to begin a lifelong campaign to improve conditions in mental institutions
St. Elizabeth's Hospital, Washington, D.C. was built on state lands, showing her influence in public policy

Social Reforms

Education
Horace Mann, the "Father of Education"
introduced public education, requiring that children attend school through 6th grade
initially, it was only mandatory for boys
Thomas Jefferson's vision was that all could and should be educated to make society better
see also notes on Women and Minorities

Temperance

greatest religiously inspired reform
in the 1800s, the per capita alcohol was 2-3 times that of now
argued that crime at all levels was rooted in alcohol
Dr. Benjamin Rush published a book in 1784 that detailed the effects of alcohol on the human body
in 1826, the assault on the "demon rum" became a national movement, the American Temperance Union
they gained 1.5 million members in one year
their members took a "cold-water pledge" to forsake all alcohol
the state of Maine was the first to prohibit the sale of alcohol, in 1851
Neal Dow, a Quaker businessman who became the mayor of Portland, led the prohibition campaign
about a dozen other states followed this lead and passed "Maine Laws"
most of these states didn't enforce the laws, or quickly repealed them

Women's Rights

many women played a role in the spirit of reform of the era, especially in temperance and abolition
this era began the quest for equality between the sexes; however, this won't happen until decades later
following the Revolutionary War, women were encouraged to become models of "Republican Motherhood"
the emerging market economy in the early 19th century widened the gap between the home and the workplace
a distinction of labor emerges between men and women, and each come to possess their own "spheres"
women embrace this role
Treaties on Domestic Equality by Catharine Beecher in 1841 was a best-seller that instructed wives and mothers on their household duties
during the Age of Reform, there were many legal limits on women
women were prohibited from voting, holding public office
they could not create wills, file law suits, or sign contracts without their husband's permission
most professions were closed to women, except for teaching and writing
legal status was like that of a child, or even a slave
Margaret Fuller was the editor of The Dial, a 19th-century Transcendentalist magazine; she wrote that women were beginning to review their lives and see what they lacked
some female Abolitionists turn against "domestic slavery"
in 1838, Angelina Grimké married a Western abolitionist but chose to keep her maiden name
Lucretia Mott and Elisabeth Stanton
were denied full participation in London's World Anti-Slavery Convention
July 1848, Seneca Falls, New York
300 delegates adopted the Declaration of Sentiments and Resolution
this was the first women's rights convention in the US
the document had the same structure as the Declaration of Independence - listed grievances and called for a redress of these grievances
they demanded the right to vote for women
34 men signed as well, but some would later request that their names be removed
these women were referred to as the "Amazons", and received public scorn
they launched the women's rights campaign in America
in 1850, Susan B. Anthony took a leading role in the drive for equality and the vote
some states slowly give rights
Mississippi was the first state to grant some property rights to married women
in 1849, Blackwell became the first female to graduate from a medical college
this was a movement before its time; it needed other reforms first, such as the abolition of slavery

Abolition

slavery had existed in all the original 13 colonies
by the mid-18th century, people begin to speak out against slavery
Quakers would be the first group to do so publicly
this outcries were bolstered by Enlightenment ideals
by the first decade of the 19th century, all states that will be free at the time of the Civil War are on the road to abolition
in 1808, Congress forbade the foreign slave trade
slavery was dying out, but the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 made cotton much more lucrative
slavery becomes an institution to control the black population
it's a "necessary evil", as freeing millions would ruin the economy
some Northerners have economic ties to the south, and workers worry about job competition
many will talk about abolition, but will restrict the political liberties of blacks
American Colonization Society
founded by powerful men, many of them were from the south
Judge Bushrod Washington presides
Henry Clay, a slaveholder, praised the attempt to rid the country of a useless and dangerous part of society
their idea was to move all blacks to Liberia, Africa
this was frowned upon by many free black Americans, who viewed America as their home and didn't see any chance for success in Liberia
some advocated separate black communities in Canada, Latin America, and the Caribbean
in 1827, in New York, the first abolitionist newspaper was started
David Walker, a free black, moved from North Carolina to Boston
in 1829 he published Walker's Appeal
he rejected colonization
warned whites of destruction if blacks had to fight for their freedom
he called for a slave rebellion
states begin to outlaw black education and stop Northern pamphlets from circulating in the South
Nat Turner's Rebellion, August 1831
leads 2 dozen on a bloody rampage in Virginia
more than 30 whites were killed
the Southerners blamed this on Northern abolitionists
the South now defends slavery as a positive good, as it prevents violent rebellions
the conflict over the abolishment of slavery is now set in stone
all issues begin to revolve around the issue of slavery
the possibility of war isn't acknowledged yet
William Lloyd Garrison, prominent Abolitionist writer
initially, he calls fro a gradual, compensated emancipation, realising that the system won't change overnight
his attitude shifts quickly, and he begins to advocate extreme abolition
publishes The Liberator
demands immediate, uncompensated abolition and equal rights for all black Americans
blames the Constitution for permitting slavery
calls on the Northern states to secede if slavery isn't abolished by the "wicked" Southerners
he is the first so suggest secession
the Abolitionist movement is not supported by all in the North
most feel fine about freeing the slaves
however, equality would create competition for jobs
abolition is considered to be a radical movement
Lucretia Mott
founded the Female Anti-Slavery Society in 1733 in Philadelphia
this groups holds a convention, with speakers, etc. in New England
Grimké sisters
were Southerners who left the south and converted to Quakerism
they were strong advocates of women's rights and abolition
escaped slaves were especially good speakers
Brown, from Kentucky, among others
Frederick Douglass's Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass
he taught himself to read and write, went to Maryland
founded the North Star, an abolitionist paper
called for racial equality
a small minority overall
physical threats were made to abolitionists
Garrison, in 1835, was paraded around Boston with a rope around his neck by a "well-dressed" mob
in Illinois, just across the Mississippi from Missouri, Lovejoy, a preacher and abolitionist writer was murdered
in 1836, the House passed the "Gag Rule", which automatically tabled (removed from discussion) any anti-slavery petition
JQ Adams, when he left the presidency, returned to serve in the House as a representative from Massachusetts; he fought the Gag Rule, and it was repealed in 1844
in 1840, abolitionist leaders formed a political party, the Liberty Party
they nominated Birney, a former Kentucky slave owner, for President, and he received 7000 popular votes
in 1844, Birney would receive 62,000 votes, losing the election for the Whigs and leading to the election of Polk
this will proved to be the most powerful Reform Era movement, as it forever changes the history of the US