1. The Bantu Migrations
  2. The Dynamics of Bantu Expansion
  3. The Bantu peoples
  4. Originated in the region around modern Nigeria
  5. Population pressure drove migrations, as early as 2000 B.C.E.
  6. Spread to south and east
  7. Languages differentiated into about 500 distinct but related tongues
  8. Occupied most of sub-Saharan Africa by 1000 C.E.
  9. Bantu agriculture
  10. Early migrants relied on agriculture
  11. Agriculture - population growth - migration
  12. Conflict with hunting and gathering peoples
  13. Bantu migrants assimilated hunting and gathering peoples
  14. Iron metallurgy
  15. Iron appeared during the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E.
  16. Iron tools made agriculture more productive
  17. Bantu migration accelerated with iron tools
  18. Bananas
  19. Between 300 and 500 C.E., Malay seafarers colonized Madagascar and established banana cultivation
  20. Bananas became well-established in Africa by 500 C.E.
  21. Introduction of bananas caused another migration surge
  22. Population growth
  23. 3.5 million people by 400 B.C.E.
  24. 11 million by the beginning of the millennium
  25. 17 million by 800 C.E.
  26. 22 million by 1000 C.E.
  27. Bantu Political Organization
  28. "Stateless society"
  29. Early Bantu societies did not depend on elaborate bureaucracy
  30. Societies governed through family and kinship groups
  31. Village council, consisted of male family heads
  32. Chief of a village was from the most prominent family heads
  33. A group of villages constituted a district
  34. Villages chiefs negotiated intervillage affairs
  35. Chiefdoms
  36. Population growth strained resources, increased conflict
  37. Some Bantu communities began to organize military forces, 1000 C.E.
  38. Powerful chiefs overrode kinship networks and imposed authority
  39. Some chiefs conquered their neighbors
  40. Kingdom of Kongo
  41. Villages formed small states along the Congo River, 1000 C.E.
  42. Small states formed several larger principalities, 1200 C.E.
  43. One of the principalities overcame its neighbors and built kingdom of Kongo
  44. Maintained a centralized government with a royal currency system
  45. Provided effective organization until the mid-17th century
  46. Islamic Kingdoms and Empires
  47. Trans-Saharan Trade and Islamic States in West Africa
  48. Camels
  49. Camels came to north Africa from Arabia, 7th century B.C.E.
  50. After 500 C.E. camels replaced horses and donkeys as transport animals
  51. Camels' arrival quickened pace of communication across the Sahara
  52. Islamic merchants crossed the desert and established relations with sub-Saharan west Africa, by the late 8th century
  53. The kingdom of Ghana
  54. A principal state of west Africa, not related to modern state of Ghana
  55. Became the most important commercial site in west Africa
  56. Provided gold, ivory, and slaves for traders from north Africa
  57. Exchange for horses, cloth, manufactured goods, and salt
  58. Koumbi-Saleh
  59. The capital city of Ghana, a thriving commercial center
  60. Ghana kings maintained a large army of two hundred thousand warriors
  61. Islam in west Africa
  62. Ghana kings converted to Islam by the 10th century
  63. Allowed the people to observe their traditional beliefs
  64. Nomadic raids from the Sahara weakened the kingdom, the early 13th century
  65. Sundiata
  66. After Ghana dissolved, political leadership shifted to Mali empire
  67. The lion prince Sundiata (reigned 1230-55) built the Mali empire
  68. The Mali empire and trade
  69. Controlled and taxed almost all trade passing through west Africa
  70. Enormous caravans linked Mali to north Africa
  71. Besides the capital Niani, many other prosperous cities on caravan routes
  72. Mansa Musa
  73. Sundiata's grand nephew, reigned from 1312 to 1337
  74. Made his pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324-1325
  75. a gargantuan caravan of thousand soldiers and attendants
  76. gold devalued 25% in Cairo during his visit
  77. Mansa Musa and Islam
  78. Upon return to Mali, built mosques
  79. Sent students to study with distinguished Islamic scholars in northern Africa
  80. Established Islamic schools in Mali
  81. The decline of Mali
  82. Factions crippled the central government
  83. Military pressures from neighboring kingdoms and desert nomads
  84. The Songhay empire replaced Mali by the late 15th century
  85. The Indian Ocean Trade and Islamic States in East Africa
  86. Early visitors to east Africa
  87. Indian and Persian sailors visited the coasts after about 500 B.C.E.
  88. Hellenistic and Roman mariners reached the same coasts
  89. Malay seafarers established colonies on Madagascar
  90. By the 2nd century, Bantu peoples populated much of east Africa
  91. The Swahili
  92. An Arabic term, meaning "coasters"
  93. Dominated east African coast from Mogadishu to Sofala
  94. Spoke Swahili, a Bantu language supplemented with some Arabic words
  95. Trade with Muslim merchants became important by the 10th century
  96. The Swahili city-states
  97. Chiefs gained power through taxing trade on ports
  98. Ports developed into city-states governed by kings, 11th and 12th centuries
  99. Kilwa
  100. One of the busiest city-states on east coast
  101. Multistory stone buildings and copper coins, from the 13th century
  102. By the late 15th century, Kilwa exported about a ton of gold per year
  103. Zimbabwe
  104. A powerful kingdom of east Africa
  105. The 5th and 6th centuries C.E., wooden residences known as zimbabwe
  106. By the 9th century, chiefs began to build stone zimbabwe
  107. The magnificent stone complex known as Great Zimbabwe, the 12th century
  108. Eighteen thousand people lived in Great Zimbabwe in the late 15th century
  109. Kings organized flow of gold, ivory, and slaves
  110. Islam in East Africa
  111. Ruling elite and wealthy merchants converted to Islamic faith
  112. Conversion promoted close cooperation with Muslim merchants
  113. Conversion also opened door to political alliances with Muslim rulers
  114. Bantu Society and Cultural Development
  115. Social Classes
  116. Diversity of African societies
  117. Complex societies developed into kingdoms, empires, and city-states
  118. Coexisted with small states and stateless societies
  119. Kinship groups of stateless societies
  120. Extended families and clans as social and economic organizations
  121. Communities claimed rights to land, no private property
  122. Village council allocated land to clan members
  123. Sex and gender relations
  124. Men undertook heavy labor
  125. Women were responsible for child rearing, domestic chores
  126. Men monopolized public authority, but women enjoyed high honor as the source of life
  127. Aristocratic women could influence public affairs
  128. Women merchants commonly traded at markets
  129. Sometimes women organized all-female military units
  130. Islam did little to curtail women's opportunities in sub-Saharan Africa
  131. Age grades
  132. Publicly recognized "age grades" or "age sets"
  133. Assumed responsibilities and tasks appropriate to their age grades
  134. Slavery
  135. Most slaves were captives of war, debtors, criminals
  136. Worked as agricultural labor or sold in slave markets
  137. Slave trading
  138. Slave trade increased after the 11th century
  139. Demand for slaves outstripped supply from eastern Europe
  140. Slave raids of large states against small states or stateless societies
  141. In some years, 10 to 12 thousand slaves shipped out of Africa
  142. Ten million slaves were transported by Islamic trade between 750 and 1500
  143. African Religion
  144. Creator god
  145. Recognized by almost all African peoples
  146. Created the earth and humankind, source of world order
  147. Lesser gods and spirits
  148. Often associated with natural features
  149. Participated actively in the workings of the world
  150. Believed in ancestors' souls
  151. Diviners
  152. Mediated between humanity and supernatural beings
  153. Interpreted the cause of the people's misfortune
  154. Used medicine or rituals to eliminate problems
  155. African religion was not theological, but practical
  156. The Arrival of Christianity and Islam
  157. Early Christianity in north Africa
  158. Christianity reached north Africa during the first century C.E.
  159. It had no influence on sub-Saharan African
  160. The Christian kingdom of Axum
  161. The first Christian kingdom, 4th century C.E., located in modern Ethiopia
  162. In later centuries, it was surrounded by Islamic neighbors
  163. Ethiopian Christianity
  164. Had little contact with Christians of other lands
  165. Shared basic Christian theology and rituals, but developed its own features
  166. African Islam
  167. Appealed strongly to ruling elite and merchants of sub-Saharan Africa
  168. Became part of inherited traditions
  169. Accommodated African gender relations
  170. Supplemented rather than replaced traditional religions