Midterm Review Material 2015
Research Methods
Independent variable manipulated variable. (Ex.-the pill if you’re testing a pill to see if it relieves hyperactivity or depression.)
Dependent variable- (measured variable) change in this is dependent on change in independent variable. This is the outcome and is often a score or number
Operationalized definition- explaining how you will measure a variable. (Ex. - abusive husband will be defined as a husband that physically hits his wife at least 2 times per year.)
Representative Sample- goal of sampling, select a sample representative of a larger population. (Example- a representative sample at Butler would have roughly 12% African-Americans).
Random selection- Ex-.Picking out of a hat OR Computer generated sample of 100 Butler students for survey. (Only use one of these examples). This increases likelihood of sample being representative
Stratified Sample – allows researchers to ensure that a sample is directly representative of the population on some criteria. For example: Representative by race. If a population of 1000 has 500 white, 300 black, 200 latino then one would choose 50 white, 30 black, and 20 latino individuals for a sample of 100 total participants.
Experimental condition- test group that recieves the treatment (IV)
Control Condition- the comparison group that does not receive the treatement (IV)
EXPERIMENT
Experimental method- this is the preferred method because it expresses a cause and effect relationship. You can do this by manipulating a variable. The disadvantage is that sometimes you cannot generalize what happens in a controlled laboratory environment to the real world.
Random assignment- participants are randomly assigned to either the control (group not receiving the treatment) or experimental group. (group receiving treatment)
Double-blind procedure- neither the subjects nor researchers are aware of control/experiment (or those receiving placebo). This eliminates experimenter or subject bias. A single blind controls foe subject bias (he/she does not know about the experiment)
CORRELATION
Correlation- expresses a relationship between 2 variables. Correlations may be positive or negative, strong or weak. A Positive correlation is when both variables increase or both variables decrease at the same time. (Hint: when multiplying integers in math a negative times a negative equals a positive.) Negative correlation is when one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Sometimes a survey is used
Correlation does not mean
causation- there are usually several different causes of something.
Case study- Positive: in-depth detailed study of individual or small groups. Criticism is that findings cannot be generalized to larger population.
STATISTICS
Standard Deviation
and variance - relates to the average distance of any score in a distribution from the mean. EX. If the mean on a standardized test is 78 and 1 SD (1z) = 7. Then 68% of test takers score between 71 and an 85. Then 2SD (2z) = 14. Then 95% of test takers score between 64 and 92. Then 3SD (3z) = 21, Then 99.9% of test takers score between 57 and 99.
Correlational Coefficient- a number given showing the strength of the correlation. This ranges from positive 1 to negative 1. The farther away from 0 (either pos. or neg.) the stronger the correlation.
Statistical Significance
and P Value – Inferential statistics tests yield a p-value. If a p-value is equal to or less than .05 then the test is statistically significant. A p-value will never be 0 because we can never be 100% certain the results are not due to chance.
All research must first be proposed to the Institutional Review Board and meet the following APA Ethical Guidelines
Animal Research-
- Clear, scientific purpose
- Humane treatment
- Acquire subjects legally
- Use procedures’ employing least amount of suffering feasible
Human Research-
- Informed consent (explain research and receive a signature)
- No coercion (cannot force to do)
- Debriefing (explain to subject the purpose (even if deceived a little) and results.
- No mental/physical risk/harm
Social Psychology
Mere exposure effect – the more you see something or someone familiarity occurs, which breeds acceptance. EX.- buying advertised namebrands, ad jingles often use popular songs, jingles. EX. once politicians win one term in office they are much more likely to win again
Cognitive Dissonance Theory: if behaviors and attitudes/beliefs do not match then tension arises. Attitudes or behaviors must become consistent to relieve tension. EX. You think speeding is wrong and yet, you speed. You either stop speeding or say speeding is ok.
Attribution Theory: tendency to give causal explanation of behavior to persons’ situation (external) or disposition (biological trait).
Ex. Johnny is a bad kid. Situation attribution – Johnny feeds off of other bad kids in the class. Disposition attribution – Johnny is bad in all situations
Self-fulfilling prophecy- ones beliefs/expectations about others leads one to act in ways that induce the others to appear to confirm the belief. (EX. - teacher is told specific students are on the verge of significant academic growth. By the end of the year these students IQ’s grew more than the others. This was attributed to how the teacher treated them and was called the Pygmalion in the classroom experiment.
Fundamental Attribution error: tendency to overestimate impact of personal disposition
In-group bias– preference for members of own group (most similar to you in gender, race, class, age, proximity (EX- belief that Butler students are better than Providence students (even though this is a fact).
Bystander effect: tendency for bystanders to be less likely to give aid the larger the amount of bystanders that are present. This is known as a diffusion of responsibility- EX. Kitty Genovese raped in NY.. Pluralistic Ignorance is the tendency for people to look to others to decide what is right in a situation. Also people will judge the seriousness of situation before intervening. Ex. 6th graders in park wearing headbands looking “gangsta” were likely to be stopped by adults.
Social facilitation: tendency to perform better (on easier tasks) with an audience
Social Impairment: tendency to perform worse (on difficult tasks) with an audience
Conformity- changing one’s attitudes/behaviors to match a group norm.
Asch’s study of Conformity –Q. Which line matches the standard line? Group pressure caused participants to change opinions (even when answer is obvious) about a third of the time. Conformity did not increase after 3 members were in group.
Milgram’s study of Obedience: Subjects were deceived into thinking that they were shocking someone. Participants continued shocking other participants while they were screaming to Stop! Obedience increased when: 1) authority close at hand 2) authority by prestigious institution 3) victim depersonalized (in another room) 4) no role models for defiance. This experiment has been criticized on ethical grounds. 70% went to XXX. It showed how ordinary people can be influenced by authority figures to do immoral things.
Social loafing: individual tendency for effort to decrease when working in groups
Group polarization- enhancement of group’s attitudes more toward the extreme through discussion in a group .EX. after spending 3 hours on a hate group chat line one feels even more hatred toward that group.
Deindividuation – loss of self-restraint in-group situations where one becomes anonymous. “If you could be invisible for 24 hours what would you do.
Group Think- mode of thinking when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. EX- Pres. Kennedy’s advisors decided to invade Cuba or the decision to launch the spaceship challenger or Iraq invasion.
Scapegoat theory- when the blame of problems is placed all on one certain group to cause dislike towards that group.
Biological Basis of Behavior (Neuroscience)
Action potential electrical message firing
Threshold- neurons are pushed past this to begin the firing. (Toilet flushing)
Neuron firing- “all or nothing” either fires or doesn’t (like a toilet flushing) positive ions rush in negative ions leave (like the water in a dirty toilet)
Refractory period – brief time when a neuron must recharge and cannot fire (toilet)
Reuptake – The re-absorption of neurotransmitters from the sending neuron
Neurotransmitter- ______Function Problem associated with it
a.) Acetylcholine (Ach) motor movement Alzheimer’s (lack of Ach)
b.) Dopamine motor movement Parkinson’s and Schizophrenia (excess)
c.) Serotonin mood Depression
d.) Endorphins (substance p) pain Addictions
e.) Norepenephrine mood Depression
Afferent/Efferent neurons- acronym is SAME. Sensory Afferent / Motor Efferent. Sensory neurons (Afferent) go from body to brain such as when you sense pain from hitting your knee. Motor neurons go from brain to body such as when your brain and tells you to raise your hand to catch a ball.
CNS (Central Nervous System) - brain and spinal cord
PNS (Peripheral Nervous System) – all other nerves in your body
Autonomic – controls automatic functions of the body – such as heart, lungs
Sympathetic Nervous System- arouses body systems, decreases digestion, dilates pupil
Parasympathetic Nervous System- calms body systems, increases digestion, contracts pupil etc. (Mnemonic: once your parachute opens you calm, the paramedics come to calm you down)
Somatic – controls voluntary muscle movements
PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Medulla- heartbeat, breathing
Pons- controls facial expressions.
Cerebellum- balance, motor movement (Mnemonic: Sara on a balance beam)
Thalamus- contains sensory (senses) cortex (except smell)
Hypothalamus – body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst
Amygdala- emotions (Mnemonic: Picture a friend named Amy that is very emotional)
Hippocampus- formation of new memories (Mnemonic: If you saw a hippo on campus you wouldn’t
forget it)
Reticular Formation – responsible for body arousal (Mnemonic: tic toc an alarm clock wakes you up)
HEMISPHERES
Contra lateral control- the left hemisphere controls the motor movement of the right hand.
Hemispheric Specialization- outdated theory suggesting that each hemisphere controls all specific functions. It’s factual however that the left is where most language takes place. Right is spatial. (map reading etc.)
Split brain patients- can write a word they see in the right visual field but cannot say it because the left hemisphere controls language
Corpus collosum- connects the 2 hemispheres and transmits messages to each other. People who get epileptic seizures have this surgically cut and become split brain patients.
AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Broca’s Area- speech production (broken CD player does not make sound)
Wernicke’s Area- language comprehension.
Frontal Lobe- thought, planning
Parietal Lobe- sensory cortex, sense of touch.
Occipital Lobe- vision. (Optometrist and Optical illusion starts with an O)
Temporal Lobe- auditory, sound.
Motor Cortex – sends signals to the muscles, controlling voluntary movement. Located at the back of the frontal lobe
Sensory Cortex – receives incoming touch sensations from the body. Located at the front of the parietal lobe.
Crystallized intelligence- the intelligence that comes from prior experience.
Fluid intelligence- abstract and independent intelligence, based off of what you think would work to solve a problem, not something you have seen or tried before.
Developmental Psychology
RESEARCH METHODS
Cross-sectional – studies participants of different ages.
Longitudinal – studies same participants over long period of time.
Maturation- biological influence on development. Cannot be learned (Ex.-walking, rope climbing) Infant motor development usually in same sequence.
REFLEXES
Habituation – decreasing responsiveness to a stimulus. Eventually a baby will become disinterested with the ball.
Theory of Mind – the belief that others think, feel and perceive – develops in the preoperational stage
· Ex. Autistic individuals lack theory of mind (also lack verbal communication skills)
PARENTING
Attachment Theories (bond between child and parent)
~Harlow’s monkeys. Baby monkeys preferred wire mother with fur over wire mother with bottle. This proved that babies do not form attachment to mothers just because of nourishment but rather contact comfort. Also showed monkeys becoming stressed/frightened when placed in new situation
~Mary Ainsworth studied how human babies reacted when placed in strange situations away from mother. This suggested whether they had formed secure or insecure attachments which effected then throughout their life. Secure babies explore environment, stressed when mom leaves and come to parents upon return
STAGE THEORISTS
Continuity v. discontinuity Q. Do we develop in stages or continuously?
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGE THEORY (in chronological order) - experiences with others are important. Humans hope to end each stage closer to the first concept.
o Trust v. mistrust- (Birth to 1) - establishes a sense of basic trust in world
o Autonomy v. shame/doubt (favorite word is “No”- shows independence, toilet training)
o Initiative v. guilt (favorite word is Q. Why?)
o Industry (or competence)
v. inferiority (elementary years) - may develop inferiority complex if not successful at elementary tasks.
o Identity v. role confusion (adolescence= teens) test out different roles
o Intimacy v. isolation (20’s-30’s)
o Generativity v. stagnation (middle age)- psychological need to give to the next generation
o Integrity v. despair. (Late adulthood) – look back and decide if a.)We are satisfied with accomplishments b.) life was meaningful
PIAGET”S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Schema- aka schemata- conceptual framework (interpretation) of the world based on experiences, stereotypes etc.
Assimilation- attempting to incorporate new information into existing schema. (Ex. Boy say doggy for all 4 legged animals)
Accommodation- changing our schema to fit new information. (EX- Some 4 legged animals are horses, some are cows)
o Sensorimotor (0-2) Object Permanence. Child learns that if a ball leaves the room it still exists.
o Preoperational (2-7) egocentrism (child is center of the universe), language development, Artificialism
(belief that humans make everything), establishes a theory of mind
o Concrete operational (7-11) conservation-child learns that volume of liquid remains the same even when the
shape of glass changes. (Tall glass, short fat glass) Another example is cutting a sandwich in half seems like more. Logical thinking also develops.
o Formal operational (11-adult) ability to think abstractly, hypothetically and morally reason
Criticism of Piaget’s
cognitive development - Piaget underestimated children (Children begin stages earlier than expected and pass through stages faster than expected.), Development may be more continuous than occur in discrete stages.