The view expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of UNICEF, the Government of Zimbabwe, its various departments and the Institute of Water and Sanitation Development (IWSD). The authors however express that this document was drawn from consultations with a number of stakeholders, some of whom are listed.
The report was produced by a team under coordination of the Institute of Water and Sanitation Development, the team comprised Eng. N. R. Mudege, Dr. J. Ndamba, Mr. L. Mujuru, Mr. J. Dalu, Mr. F. S. Makoni, Mr. S. Madyiwa, Ms. S. Moyo and Mr. H. R. Mashingaidze.
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
1.BACKGROUND
2.Vulnerability , Water and Sanitation Needs Analysis
2.1Methodology and limitations......
2.2Origins of current conditions......
2.2.1The cyclone Eline......
2.2.2Drought......
2.2.3Agrarian Land Reform
3.MAGNITUDE OF PROBLEM IN AREAS ASSESSED
3.1OUTSTANDING EFFECTS OF CYCLONE ELINE......
3.1.1 Magnitude, Requirements and Groups at risk......
3.1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations on the Cyclone Eline effects......
4.2 EFFECTS OF THE DROUGHT
4.2.1 WATER in Communal Areas
4.2.2Sanitation Coverage in Communal Areas......
4.3EFFECTS OF LAND REFORM
4.5.3Groups at risk......
District
Households......
6.LOCAL CAPACITY AND RESOURCES
6.1District Level......
6.2The Civil Protection Committee (CPC)......
6.3 Community Level......
7. PRIORITY NEEDS IN RELATION TO WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION
Priority 1: Water Supply in the newly resettled areas
Priority 2:Sanitation in Resettlement areas......
Priority 3:Improvement of Sanitation System in Communal lands......
Priority 4Water Supply in Institutions......
8.0Conclusion, Recommendations and Priority Actions
8.1 Priority Actions in Relation To Cyclone......
8.2Priority Action in Relation to Drought and the Land Reform......
9.0 Annex 1List of districts Assessed
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their many thanks to UNICEF and the Government of Zimbabwe for facilitating this study financially and making available to the team valuable documents and ideas. We thank sincerely UNICEF Resident representative and Mr. Jonga for their support.
The team was well received by the many stakeholders in the districts visited, despite the short notice and various other commitments including the land reform. Among the people for which sincere thanks are extended include Heads of government departments Provincial Administrators, Provincial Heads of government ministries and departments, NGOs, District Administrators and Chief Executive Officers of the RDCs visited, Councillors, members of Water and Sanitation Committees, members of the various land committees, representatives of the War Veterans Association, political leadership, chiefs and headmen, heads of schools and clinics, teachers and community members.
Given the time frame, the success of the study depended on effective national coordination for which we thank the IWSD administration staff and Team assistants. Our special thanks also goes to Ms. L. Tapfumaneyi for coordinating the collection of national data from various departments and agencies. To you all, the support you gave will help in alleviating the suffering in our communities caused by the cyclone and most recently the drought.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AREX / Agriculture Research and ExtensionCPC / Civil Protection Committee
DDF / District Development Fund
DSWSSC / District Water Supply and Sanitation Sub-committee
ESA / External Support Agencies
FCD / Focus Group Discussion
GMB / Grain Marketing Board
HARP / Human Assistance Recovery Programme
IRWSSP / Integrated Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme
IWSD / Institute of Water and Sanitation Development
mm / Millimeters
mm/yr. / millimeters per year
MoHCW / Ministry of Health and Child Welfare
NEWU / National Early Learning Unit
NGOs / Non-governmental organisations
O&M / Operations and Maintenance
RDC / Rural District Council
RDDC / Rural District
UNCT
UNICEF / United Nations Children’s Fund
WFP / World Food Programme
WHO / World Health Organisation
ZBC / Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
1.BACKGROUND
In the 1999/2000-rain season, Southern Africa was significantly hit by the Cyclone Eline. In Zimbabwe, although unusually heavy rains were recorded in most parts of the country, the areas most affected by the Cyclone were in the eastern and southern districts. As a result toilets collapsed, water points were either washed away or made inaccessible, livestock and infrastructures were extensively damaged, roads and bridges were washed away, and villagers were made homeless. However, the effects are still being felt as rehabilitation initiatives have not covered all affected communities in the cyclone path. The situation has been worsened by the harsh economic environment presently affecting Zimbabwe.
While the 1999/2000 season was affected by Cyclone Eline and subsequent floods, which flooded crops and caused a lot of stress, the 2001/2002 season was affected by the drought resulting in low crop yields. The 2001/2002 season was characterised by extremely wet conditions during the first half (October to December) particularly in the Southern areas while the period January and February recorded the largest rainfall deficits.
The land reform programme has been going on since independence in 1980, but over the last 2 years this programme has been intensified, and gained political and social prominence. This has resulted in families moving to new areas where in most cases, there are no safe water and sanitation facilities.
It is recognised that programmes that meet the needs of the affected population must be based on a clear understanding of the current situation and the impact of inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities. It is within this context that the UNCT has expressed concern on water and sanitation problems in Zimbabwe. The Humanitarian Assistance and Recovery programme (HARP) has been developed to meet this crisis. A joint assessment by UNICEF/WHO/RRV and partners to provide updated information for planning an effective response to water and sanitation needs and problems of the affected population is essential. This report forms part of this process and the Institute of Water and Sanitation Development as a sector partner was commissioned to find out to what extent the 2000 Cyclone Eline, current drought and agrarian reforms are affecting people in Zimbabwe with particular reference to water and sanitation services.
2.Vulnerability , Water and Sanitation Needs Analysis
2.1Methodology and limitations
The assessment of needs draws extensively from secondary data obtained from government ministries and Departments, NGOs and also from the internet. The assessment team collected data at national level from the Ministry of Health and Child Welfare, District Development Fund, the Department of Meteorology, AREX, Early Warning Units, Save the children’s Fund (UK), School of Social Work, UNICEF and from IWSD Library. In addition, 24 Districts were visited and data collected from Water and Sanitation Sub-committees, Lands Committees, DDF, AREX, RDCs, MoHCW, Social Welfare, Ministry of local Government Public Works and National Housing, Ministry of Youth Development Gender and Employment Creation, Ministry of Education and Culture and also from schools and clinics. Provincial records were also reviewed. Interviews were held with key informants at provincial and district levels
The assessment was carried out against a background of an emergency. Hence the time allocated was very limited. Data on actual number of families already in the new resettlement area was either lacking or inconsistent. Most districts had not yet carried out full inventories of water points in these areas, where this had been done the information has not been fully analysed. Data on children in difficult circumstances was either collected or had not yet been fully analysed. However this provided a good basis upon which to determine vulnerable groups. A planning framework used in the country based on the carrying capacity of water points was used throughout. This does not however take into account walking distances. However, the assumption is that a high coverage is an indictor of potential access, which may be good enough for an emergence rapid assessment. Aggregated data by vulnerable groups was not readily available in all cases. An average household size of 6 is used throughout. Throughout this report, Gokwe refers to Gokwe North district only.
2.2Origins of current conditions
This assessment puts primary focus on three imposed conditions notably, the cyclone Eline, the drought and the Land Agrarian reforms.
2.2.1The cyclone Eline
The cyclone Eline, crossed the Mozambique borders into Zimbabwe, Botswana and South Africa on the night of February 22, 2000 and between 300 and 600mm of rainfall had fallen. The total damage done was 136 deaths, 439 injuries, 14 999 toilets destroyed, 59 184 houses/huts destroyed, 538 schools damaged, 54 clinics damaged, 230 ridges destroyed, 88 dams damaged, 20 244 livestock lost and over 300 boreholes made unserviceable. (Civil Protection Department). In the districts visited 225 boreholes, 9 843 households toilets and 2 841 school squat holes were damaged. The national output in terms of boreholes and latrines reached a peak in 1996/97 during the NAC led IRWSSP with the programme achieving 693 out of a target of 831 boreholes and 9 138 out of a target of 17 714 latrines. The output capacity has been on the downturn since then. Given the cyclone damage of toilets the challenge is how capacity can be harnessed to wipe out this damage and still maintain an output, which caters for population growth
2.2.2Drought
Zimbabwe has experienced intermittent droughts periods, 10 of which occurred between 1915 and 1995, when rainfall fell far below national average of 650mm per year. There are 4 types of droughts:
- Meteorological (total rainfall level is below 75% of the long-term seasonal rainfall average of 650mm)
- Hydrological (a deficit of run-off water in rivers, surface reservoirs and groundwater)
- Agricultural (availability of soil moisture to rain-fed plants and crops is inadequate).
- Socio-economic – as is evidenced by social stress and general economic hardships as the effects of the first three types of drought above take their toll on the social-economic fabrics of the country.
It is important therefore to analyse and identify the type of drought currently gripping the country so that appropriate intervention measures are put in place to address in the immediate term the real effects. An analysis of rainfall recorded at the meteorological stations in the districts visited show total rainfall (as at end of April) to be above or close to the normal averages for the areas in question. While a long dry spell was recorded up to March, with the result that water table was down, the water table recovered significantly as a result of the March/ April rains, which showed unusually high rainfall records for places like Mberengwa (161mm), Tsholotsho (151.9mm), Hwange Main Camp (61.5mm), Matopos Sandveld (74.5mm), Kwekwe (141mm), Masvingo (90,3mm), Chimanimani (60.4mm), Gokwe (141mm), Murehwa (88.5) and Chikomba (mm). The recovery was enough to reduce the corresponding net percentage groundwater recharge deficit to 18% at Hwange Main camp, 8.5% at Mberengwa DA’s office, 20% at Buhera, 22% at Chimanimani, 27% at Gokwe, 25% at Kwekwe, 49% at Murehwa, 24% at Rushinga, 38% at Chiredzi, 25 at Matopos and 28% at Gwanda. This compares well with the over 50% recorded throughout the country in the 1991/92 drought and other drought periods. The overall conclusion is that this is largely an agricultural drought with slight reduction in groundwater potential. This implies that water as a resource may be available especially in the northern parts of the country but precipitation was not evenly distributed throughout the season to sustain meaningful crop production. The southern region still continues to be a water stressed area. the socio-cultural vulnerability stems from the poor harvest (a strong factor in the sustenance of rural livelihoods), as communities fail to sustain or develop water and sanitation facilities in their areas.
2.2.3Agrarian Land Reform
The land reform programme has a focus on resettlement, which in practice entails the displacement of families from where they are to new areas (either onto farms or displaced from farms as is the case with some farm workers. A targeted total of 201 539 families are to be settled on 5 778 014.66 hectares of land
While there was no immediate data to separate these families into those that can afford to build their own toilets and develop their own water points, what is evident is that the majority of them come from communal areas or are former farm workers and therefore have limited resources to build infrastructure for themselves and their communities and at the same time develop their own water sources. Provision of safe water sources was noted as the top priority.
3.MAGNITUDE OF PROBLEM IN AREAS ASSESSED
3.1OUTSTANDING EFFECTS OF CYCLONE ELINE
3.1.1 Magnitude, Requirements and Groups at risk
Figures that are available indicate that over 18 000 households (approximately 108 000 people) were affected by the cyclone with the highest number being in Mutare district (Table 1). Of the affected population approximately 49% are children and 24.7% are women. In the assessment on average 12% of all children are orphans, which means approximately 6340 orphans were affected. It is estimated that approximately 4998 people (or 8.9% of the female population) made up the affected pregnant women population at the time the cyclone hit.
Water
More than 187 boreholes damaged by the cyclone are still to be repaired, representing a potential total (or at risk) of unserved population of 46 750 of which 22900 are children, 2750 are orphans and 2164 pregnant women. The response todate has only resulted in 33 boreholes being repaired (17.6% of damage).
The highest number of water points damaged was in Chimanimani where 83 were damaged and 21 repaired. However, in Insiza 42 water points were destroyed and none has been repaired to date. From the available data priority should be given to Chimanimani, Insiza, Gwanda and Matobo as these districts had the highest number of people affected as well as water points.
As a result women and children spend a lot of time in search of clean water from those boreholes that still remain. Others have to depend on unprotected water supplies. The effect of this manifests itself in the numerous water borne disease outbreaks. Cholera cases have been recorded especially in Manicaland province. The combined effect of the drought, the cyclone and the economic conditions makes it difficult for people to respond using their own resources hence the emergence. The economic climate has pushed the price of hand pump spares beyond the reach of communities.
Table 1: Cyclone Eline damage and magnitude of repair
District / No. of H/H affected / No. of W\points damaged / No. of Waterpoints rehabilitated / W\points to be rehabilitated / No. of Latrine damaged / No. of Latrine replaced / No. of toilets to be replacedH/H / Schools (sqaut holes) / H/H / Schools (squat holes) / H/H / Schools (squat holes)
Gwanda / 1 000 / 30 / 10 / 20 / 982 / 14 / 0 / 14 / 982 / 0
Matobo / 3 000 / 25 / 7 / 18 / 282 / 10 / 0 / 3 / 282 / 7
Insiza / 4 000 / 42 / 0 / 42 / 300 / 15 / 0 / 3 / 300 / 12
Mberengwa / 961 / 10 / 0 / 10 / 846 / 8 / 0 / 2 / 846 / 6
Gokwe / 849 / 15 / 0 / 15 / 243 / 9 / 0 / 0 / 243 / 9
Tsholotsho / 400 / 10 / 0 / 10* / 54 / 0 / 400 / 54
Guruve / 250 / 10 / 5 / 5 / 27 / 20 / - / 20 / 27 / 0
Mutare / 5 230 / - / - / - / 4 488 / 8 / - / 8 / 4 488 / 0
Chimanimani / 3 210 / 83 / 21 / 67 / 2 675 / 2 702 / - / 2 702 / 2 675 / -
Total / 18 900 / 225 / 33 / 187 / 9 843 / 2 841 / 0 / 2 733 / 10 243 / 88
* Wards 5 and 6 affected by cyclone to be relocated to Lupane and affected families will need new water and sanitation facilities
Although water point damage data was not available for Mutare, judging from the trends of adjacent districts and the choler threat noted below it is safe to assume a magnitude of damage similar to Chimanimani. However, Plan International, Zimbabwe has been active in Mutare district, providing and rehabilitating water points.
Requirement Under this scenario, a total of 180 water points will be needed to offset the effects of the cyclone damage, which has exposed women and children to disease outbreaks. Priority should be given to the eastern districts of Mutare and Chimanimani. The number of boreholes to be drilled or rehabilitated in each area are:
- Chimanimani: 60 boreholes serving approximately 15000 people (or 9.8% of district population) of which approximately 3700 are women, 7350 children, 450 orphans and 694 pregnant women.
- Mutare:40 boreholes serving approximately 10000 people (or 4.9% of district population), of which approximately 2470 are women, 4900 children, 590 orphans and 463 pregnant women. This number could be increased or decreased depending on the damage figures and the interventions by Plan International, Zimbabwe.
- Insiza:40 boreholes serving approximately 10000 people (or 8.3% of district population), of which approximately 2470 are women, 4900 children, 590 orphans and 463 pregnant women.
- Matobo:20 boreholes serving approximately 5000 people (or 4.5% of district population), of which approximately 1235 are women, 2450 children, 295 orphans and 230 pregnant women.
- Gwanda:20 boreholes serving approximately 5000 people (or 3.1% of district population), of which approximately 1235 are women, 2450 children, 295 orphans and 230 orphans.
In districts such as Tsholotsho, Guruve and Gwanda, development activities in the low lying areas that are prone to flooding have stopped as these people are waiting to be moved to higher ground. The minimization of the continued effects of the cyclone should be viewed as an emergence given the onset of the drought that has significantly weakened the community resource base. The long and short term threats of disease outbreaks in communities weakened by malnutrition and food shortage is a course for concern.
Sanitation
In terms of sanitation, Mutare district was the worst affected with about 5 000 latrine units having been destroyed followed by Chimanimani where over 2 500 units were destroyed and to date none has been replaced. It is therefore not surprising that of all the districts visited, these were the two districts that recorded the highest numbers of cholera cases. By the 7th May 2002, Mutare had recorded 615 cholera cases and 66 deaths while Chimanimani had recorded 80 cases. Gwanda and Mberengwa are the other districts that need some assistance to replace the latrine units destroyed by the cyclone. The situation is much better with school toilets except for Tsholotsho where none of the 54 units destroyed have been replaced. In Tsholotsho Ward 5 and 6 will be relocated to neighbouring Lupane District and the 400 affected families will need new water and sanitation facilities. Similarly, in Gokwe, 9 units that were destroyed have not been replaced. Although 2 702 were destroyed in Chimanimani, all have since been replaced largely due to donor support.