YOU MUST KNOW: The Chemical Context of Life

  • 3 subatomic particles & their significance
  • Types of chemical bonds, how they form, & their relative strengths

YOU MUST KNOW: Water & Life

  • Importance of hydrogen bonding to the properties of water
  • 4 unique properties of water, & how each contributes to life on Earth
  • How to interpret the pH scale
  • How changes in pH can alter biological systems
  • The importance of buffers in biological systems

YOU MUST KNOW: Carbon & the Molecular Diversity of Life

  • Properties of carbon that make it so important

YOU MUST KNOW: The Structure & Function of Large Biological Molecules

  • Role of dehydration reactions in the formation of organic compounds & hydrolysis in the digestion of organic compounds
  • How to recognize the 4 biologically important organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, & nucleic acids) by their structural formulas
  • Cellular functions of the 4 groups of organic compounds
  • 4 structural levels of proteins & how changes at any level can affect the activity of the protein
  • How proteins reach their final shape (conformation), & denaturing impact that heat and pH can have on protein structure, and how these changes may affect the organism

YOU MUST KNOW: A Tour of the Cell

  • 3 differences between prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
  • Structure & function of organelles common to plant and animal cells
  • Structure & function of organelles found only in plant cells or only in animal cells

Study tip: know the structure & function of each organelle & whetheris is found in a plant cell, animal cell, or both. Be able to predict & justify how a change in a cellular organelle would affect the function of the entire cell or organism

YOU MUST KNOW: Membrane Structure & Function

  • Why membranes are selectively permeable
  • Role of phospholipids, proteins, & carbohydrates in membranes
  • How water will move if a cell is placed in an isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic solution & be able to predict the effect of different environments on the organism
  • How electrochemical gradients are formed & function in cells

YOU MUST KNOW: An Introduction to Metabolism

  • Examples of endergonic & exergonic reactions
  • The key role of ATP in energy coupling
  • That enzymes work by lowering the energy of activation
  • The catalytic cycle of an enzyme that results in the production of a final product
  • Factors that influence enzyme activity

Study tip: Enzymes are a key topic in biology. It is likely that you will do an investigation with enzymes. Focus on factors that affect enzyme action, & be able to pose a question about enzyme function, design an experiment to test this question, predict results, & analyze data from an enzyme experiment.

YOU MUST KNOW: Cell Communication

  • 3 stages of cell communication: reception, transduction, & response
  • How G protein-coupled receptors receive cell signals & start transduction
  • How receptor tyrosine kinases receive cell signals & start transduction
  • How a cell signal is amplified by a phosphorylation cascade
  • How a cell response in the nucleus turns on genes, whereas in the cytoplasm it activates enzymes
  • What apoptosis means &why it is important to normal functioning of multicellular organisms
  • STUDY TIP: Cell signaling has emerged as an important topic that explains cell interactions. Devote study time to understanding how the 2 types of receptors discussed in this unit function. Also, be prepared to explain the role of apoptosis in specific instances, such as formation of fingers & toes, or of cancer.

YOU MUST KNOW: The Cell Cycle

  • Structure of a duplicated chromosome
  • Cell cycle & stages of mitosis
  • Role of kinases & cyclin in the regulation of the cell cycle
  • Role of mitosis in the distribution of genetic information
  • You do NOT have to know the specific phases of mitosis. However, many students find it useful to organize their understanding of the process.

YOU MUST KNOW: Cellular Respiration & Fermentation

  • The summary equation of cellular respiration
  • The difference between fermentation & cellular respiration
  • The role of glycolysis in oxidizing glucose to 2 molecules of pyruvate
  • The process that brings pyruvate from the cytosol into the mitochondria & introduces it into the citric acid cycle
  • How the process of chemiosmosis utilizes the electrons from NADH & FADH2 to produce ATP
  • Study tip: being able to sketch these processes & explain them verbally will help you understand. These are fundamental biological processes that you need to understand

YOUMUST KNOW: Photosynthesis

  • The summary equation of photosynthesis including the source & fate of the reactants & products
  • How leaf & chloroplast anatomy relates to photosynthesis
  • How photosystems convert solar energy to chemical energy
  • How linear electron flow in the light reactions results in the formation of ATP, NADPH, & O2
  • How chemiosmosis generates ATP in the light reactions
  • How the Calvin cycle uses the energy molecules of the light reactions to produce G3P
  • Study tip: practice drawing a chloroplast, label its parts & know what major events occur in each region; also, practice drawing & labeling an overview of photosynthesis. You should be able to explain the overall purpose of the 2 stages of photosynthesis. Understanding the “big picture” should help you comprehend the details. Try sketching the Calvin cycle & practice explaining this process.
  • Details of alternate mechanisms of carbon fixation are not required but the overall mechanism as an example of plant adaptations to arid conditions would be helpful to know

YOU MUST KNOW: Meiosis & Sexual Life Cycles

  • The differences between asexual & sexual reproduction
  • The role of meiosis & fertilization in sexually reproducing organisms
  • The importance of homologous chromosomes to meiosis
  • How the chromosome number is reduced from diploid to haploid through the stages of meiosis3 important differences between mitosis & meiosis
  • 3 important differences between mitosis & meiosis
  • The importance of crossing over, independent assortment,& random fertilization to increasing genetic variability
  • Study tip: understanding prophase I is critical to understanding meiosis:
  • Synapsis occurs, forming tetrads
  • Crossing over occurs between homologous chromosomes in the tetrads
  • Crossing over increases genetic variation
  • Areas of crossing over form chiasmata
  • The nuclear envelope disintergrates, allowing the spindle to attach to the homologs
  • Study tip: be prepared to cite these 3 examples if asked to explain differences between mitosis & meiosis: these 3 events take place in meiosis I that do not occur during mitosis
  • Synapsis & crossing over do not happen in mitosis
  • @ metaphase I, paired homologous chromosomes (tetrads) are positioned on the metaphase plate, rather than individual replicated chromosomes, as in mitosis
  • @ anaphase I, duplicated chromosomes of each homologous pair separate but the sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome stay attached. In mitosis, the chromatids separate
  • Study tip: there are 3 important processes that contribute to variation (be sure you can explain each of them):
  • Crossing over
  • Independent assortment
  • Random fertilization

YOU MUST KNOW: Mendel & the Gene Idea

  • Terms associated with genetics problems: P, F1, F2, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, & genotype
  • How to derive the proper gametes when working a genetics problem
  • The difference between an allele & a gene
  • How to read a pedigree
  • How to use data sets to determine Mendelian patterns of inheritance
  • Study tip:What are the chances of event 1 & event 2 happening? MULTIPLY them What are the chances of event 1 OR event 2 happening? ADD them
  • How the chromosome theory of inheritance connects the physical movement of chromosomes in meiosis to Mendel’s laws of inheritance
  • The unique pattern of inheritance in sex-linked genes
  • How alteration of chromosome number or structurally altered chromosomes (deletion, duplications, etc) can cause genetic disorders
  • How genomic imprinting & inheritance of mitochondrial DNA are exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance

YOU MUST KNOW: The Molecular Basis of Genetics

  • The structure of DNA
  • The knowledge about DNA gained from the work os Watson, Crick, Wilkins, & Franklin;Avery, MacLeod, & McCarty; & Hershey and Chasse
  • The major steps of DNA replication
  • The difference between replication, transcription, & translation
  • The general differences between bacterial DNA & eukaryotic chromosomes
  • How DNA packaging can affect gene expression

YOU MUST KNOW: From Gene to Protein

  • The key terms: gene expression, transcription,& translation
  • The major events of transcription
  • How eukaryotic cells modify RNA after transcription
  • The steps to translation
  • How mutations can change the amino acid sequence of a protein
  • Study tip: chapter on molecular genetics must be studied to perform well on AP exam!!

YOU MUST KNOW: Regulation of Gene Expression

  • The functions of the 3 parts of an operon
  • The role of repressor genes in operons
  • The impact of DNA methylation & histone acetylation on gene expression
  • The role of gene regulation in embryonic development & cancer

YOU MUST KNOW: Viruses

  • The parts of a virus
  • The differences between lytic and lysogenic cycles

YOU MUST KNOW: Biotechnology

  • The terminology of biotechnology
  • The steps in cloning with special attention to the biotechnology tools that make cloning possible
  • The key ideas that make PCR possible
  • How gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA fragments or protein molecules

YOU MUST KNOW: Genomes & Their Evolution

  • How prokaryotic genomes compare to eukaryotic genomes
  • The activity & role of transposable elements & retrotransposons
  • How evo-devo relates to our understanding of the evolution of genomes
  • The role of homeotic genes and homeoboxes

YOU MUST KNOW: Descent with Modification: A Darwinian View of Life

  • How Lamarck’s view of the mechanism of evolution differed from Darwin’s
  • Several examples of evidence for evolution
  • The difference between structures that are homologous & those that are analogous, & how this relates to evolution
  • The role of adaptations, variation, time, reproductive success, & heritability in evolution
  • Study tip:evidence for evolution is seen in the following way:
  • Direct observations
  • Fossil record
  • Homology
  • Biogeography
  • Study tip: homologous structures show evidence of common ancestry (whale fin/bat wing); analogous structures are similar solutions to similar problems but do not indicate close relatedness (bird wing/butterfly wing)
  • Study tip:
  • Evolution is change in species over time
  • There is overpopulation of offspring, which leads to competition for resources
  • Heritable variations can result in differential reproductive success
  • These variations can result in differential reproductive success
  • Over generations, this can result in changes in genetic composition of the population
  • REMEMBER: Individuals do not evolve! Populations evolve

YOU MUST KNOW: The Evolution of Populations

  • How mutations & sexual reproduction each produce genetic variation
  • The conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
  • How to use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to calculate allele frequencies & to test whether a population is evolving

YOU MUST KNOW: The Origin of Species

  • The biological concept of species
  • Prezygotic & postzygotic barriers that maintain reproductive isolation in natural populations
  • How allopatric & sympatric speciation are similar & different
  • How an autopolyploid or an allopolyploid chromosomal change can leadto sympatric speciation
  • How punctuated equilibrium & gradualism describe 2 different tempos of speciation

YOU MUST KNOW: The History of Life on Earth

  • A scientific hypothesis about the origin of life on Earth
  • The age of the Earth & when prokaryotic & eukaryotic life emerged
  • Characteristics of the early planet & its atmosphere
  • How Miller & Urey tested the Oparin-Haldane hypothesis & what they learned
  • Methods used to date fossils & rocks & how fossil evidence contributes to our understanding of changes in life on Earth
  • Evidence for endosymbiosis
  • How continental drift can explain the current distribution of species (biogeography)
  • How extinction events open habitats that may result in adaptive radiation

YOU MUST KNOW: Phylogeny & the Tree of Life

  • The taxonomic categories & how they indicate relatedness
  • How systematic is used to develop phylogenetic trees
  • The 3 domains of life including their similarities & their differences

Study tip: This topic includes a broad look at taxonomic groups. Because of advances in DNA sequencing, classification is in a state of flux

YOU MUST KNOW: Bacteria & Archaea

  • The key ways in which prokaryotes differ from eukaryotes with respect to genome, membrane-bound organelles, size, & reproduction
  • Mechanisms that contribute to genetic diversity in prokaryotes, including transformation, conjugation, transduction, & mutation

YOU MUST KNOW: Resource Acquisition & Transport in Vascular Plants

  • The role of passive transport, active transport, & cotransport in plant transport
  • The role of diffusion, active transport, & bulk flow in the movement of water & nutrients in plants
  • How the transpiration cohesion-tension mechanism explains water movement in plants
  • How pressure flow explains translocation

Study tip: Hydrogen bonding plays a key role in cohesion-tension mechanisms. Be able to explain the importance of cohesion, adhesion (water hydrogen bonded to xylem walls), & surface tension in this mechanism.

YOU MUST KNOW: Plant Responses to Internal & External Signals

  • the 3 steps to a signal transduction pathway
  • the role of auxins in plants
  • how phototropism & photoperiodism use changes in the environment to modify plant growth & behavior
  • how plants respond to attacks by herbivores & pathogens

study tip: Essays on the AP biology exam often cover ideas in different units in the textbook. This concept brings together the general ideas on cell communication from Chapter 11 with the specific results of cell communication in plants. This would be an excellent topic for an essay.

Study tip: you are not required to know the names & functions of the plant hormones. However, you should be able to explain the plant responses of phototropism & photoperiodism, & knowledge of some hormones will be helpful to your understanding of these responses

YOU MUST KNOW: Basic Principles of Animal Form & Function

  • the importance of homeostasis & examples
  • how feedback systems control homeostasis
  • one example of positive feedback & one example of negative feedback

YOU MUST KNOW: The Immune System

  • several elements of an innate immune response
  • the differences between B & T cells relative to their activation & actions
  • how antigens are recognized by immune system cells
  • the differences in humoral & cell-mediated immunity
  • why helper T cells are central to immune responses

YOU MUST KNOW: The Endocrine System

  • how hormones bind to target receptors & trigger specific pathways
  • the secretion, target, action, & regulation of at least 2 hormones
  • an illustration of both positive and negative feedback in the regulation of homeostasis by hormones

YOU MUST KNOW: The Nervous System

  • the anatomy of a neuron
  • the mechanisms of impulse transmission in a neuron
  • the process that leads to release of neurotransmitter, and what happens at the synapse
  • how the vertebrate brain integrates information, which leads to an appropriate response
  • different regions of the brain have different functions (you do not need to know each region & its function, but should have a firm grasp of an illustrative example)

YOU MUST KNOW: Animal Behavior\

  • how behaviors are the result of natural selection
  • how innate behavior & various types of learning increase fitness
  • how organisms use communication to increase fitness
  • various forms of animal communication
  • the role of altruism & inclusive fitness in kin selection

YOU MUST KNOW: Introduction to Ecology

  • the role of abiotic factors in the formation of biomes
  • how biotic & abiotic factors affect the distribution of biomes
  • how changes in these factors may alter ecosystems

study tip: know what biome you live in, focus on an illustrative example of a biome:know the typical species found there, & reasons for their distribution

YOU MUST KNOW: Population Ecology

  • how density, dispersion, & demographics candescribe a population
  • the differences between exponential & logistic models of population growth
  • how density-dependent & density-independent factors can control population growth

study tip: You will be given a formula sheet to use on the AP exam. The formulas for population growth, exponential growth, & logistic growth rate are included. You will need to practice each of these!

YOU MUST KNOW: Community Ecology

  • the difference between a fundamental niche &a realized niche
  • the role of competitive exclusion in interspecific competition
  • the symbiotic relationships of parasitism, mutualism, & commensalism
  • the impact of keystone species on community structure
  • the difference between primary & secondary succession

study tip:prefix inter- means between different groups, whereas intra- means w/in same group. Pay attention to the prefix; you could be asked to write about either type of competition in an essay

YOU MUST KNOW: Ecosystems & Restoration Ecology

  • how energy flows through the ecosystem by understanding the terms that relate to food chains & food webs (ecosystem, primary producers, autotrophs, heterotrophs, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, detrivores, decomposers, primary production, Gross Primary Production [GPP], Net Primary Production [NPP], eutrophic, evapotranspiration, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, nitrogen fixation, bioremediation, bioaugmentation
  • the difference between GPP & NPP
  • the carbon & nitrogen biogeochemical cycles
  • biogeochemical cycles such as the carbon & nitrogen cycles, & how they may impact individual organisms &/or populations & ecosystems
  • REMEMBER: matter cycles, energy does NOT cycle

YOU MUST KNOW: Conservation Biology & Global Change

  • The value of biodiversity, & the major human threats to it
  • How human activity is changing the Earth

Lab Information

YOU MUST KNOW: Hardy- Weinberg

  • The Hardy-Weinberg equation & be able to use it to determine the frequency of alleles in a population
  • Conditions for maintaining Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
  • How genetic drift, selection & the heterozygote advantage affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Study tip: If you are given the # of individuals showing the dominant trait, remember that this is NOT p2 becauseit includes heterozygotes. However, you can use it to determine q2 & from that get a value for q. You may also be given a problem where you are told the frequency of an allele: you are being given p or q!