BEST III - Working document
Remark: This document gathers information from the list of references previously validated for the island. It is a working document that will be implementedfollowing your comments and corrections. It will be used as a guide during the consultation process that will involve local governments, institutions and organizations.
The objectives are to identify and map Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) in order to define conservation outcomes. KBAs are defined at 3 ecological levels: (1) species, including: globally threatened species, restricted-range species, and species gathering in important number during their life cycle; (2) sites: habitats that are home to the species previously identified;habitats and ecosystems that play important ecological processes and contribute to the persistence of biodiversity ; (3) ecological corridors: inter-connected landscapes of sites.
Regarding the information and references cited hereafter, a list of "potential KBAs" is proposed in App.2. This is a work in progress that will be validated through the consultation of local actors.
Environmental profile-Curaçao
Terrestrial and Underwater Parks & (planned) Protected Areas (no fishing zones)
1. Policy and Socioeconomic context
1.1.Geography, climate and political status
Curaçao (12°2'80''N, 69°10'00"W) lies off the north-west coast of Venezuela, located between Aruba (76 km) and Bonaire (41 km). Curaçao, together with the islands of Arubaand Bonaire form the Leeward Islands of the Caribbean part of the Kingdom of the Netherlandsandare often referred to as the “ABC islands”, Curaçao is the largest of the 3 ABC islands (444 km2) and is 59 km long and between4 and 11km wide.Mount Christoffel, is the highest hill on the island at 378m. The ABC islands are separated from South American mainland by a deep water trench.Based on the mean annual rainfall (573 mm), the climate on the island qualifies as semi-arid. Annual variations in temperature are small and average around 28°C. Precipitation levels differ throughout the year and in the period between October and January rainfall is higher than all other months and therefore referred to as the wet season (Meteorological Services of the Netherland Antilles and Aruba 2008).
As of October 10th 2010, Curaçaobecame an independent country within the Kingdom of the Netherlandssimilar to St Maarten andAruba. This island is an European Oversea Territoryof the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
1.2.Demographic Trends and Socio-economic context
- Area:444km²
- EEZ: 30,398 km², total EEZ of the ABC Islands: 68,873 km²
- Population:150,563inhab., density: 339inhab./km² (2011)
- GDP (US$/ inhab.): 18,360 (2012)
Curaçao's economy is mainly based on tourism (18.5% GDP in 2009; Strategic Tourism Master Plan for the Island of Curaçao 2010 – 2014) and associated services, oil trans-shipment, offshore banking and services. The oil refinery represents more than 90% of all exports(data: Central Bureau Statistics). With about 150,000 inhabitants, Curaçao has the largest population of the Leeward Islands. Most of the population is centered around Willemstad,the capital city, which surrounds the Schottegat inland bay. About 200 cruise ships and 240,000 tourists visit annually of which 104,497 people visited the Terrestrial Parks in 2013.
1.3 Protected and/or managed areas
(References: DCNA 2012a; Dilrosun et al. 2012,
Christoffel Park(created in 1978 over 2,300 ha)has the highest diversity of flora and fauna on the the ABC islands that are otherwise rare on and endemic tothe island. Rare species include a population of about 250 individuals of the White-tailed deer, an endemic sub species.The Christoffel Park also harbors vegetation types that are only found in the ChristoffelPark. See also: Northwest Curaçao.
SheteBoka Park(created in 1994over 470ha) is located on the island's rocky north coast and has been designated to protect the pocket beaches (“bokas”) in this area that constitute important sea turtle nesting sites.See also: Northwest Curaçao.
Curaçao Underwater Park (1983, 600ha of marine area and 436 ha of inland bay habitats) is located in the southeastern part of the island (from high-water to 60m deep) and extends 21 km from the eastern outskirts of Willemstad. It covers 12 km of coastline (undeveloped and uninhabited, Bruckner 2003) harboring pristine fringing coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves and a high diversity of fish species (c. 350 fishes). One of the main issues is the low level of enforcement in the MPA, mainly due lack of Government funding.
- 4 managed RAMSAR sites:These RAMSAR sites are managed and considered as protected areas (enforcement of regulations). Management plans are about to be implemented for all the RAMSAR sites (Mark Vermeij, pers. com. 2015).
Malpais/SintMichiel(RAMSAR area, 05/02/2013; Curaçao; 1,100 ha; 12°10'N 069°00'W.Important Bird Area).Malpais is a former plantation just to the north of SintMichiel. There are two freshwater lakes and a hyper-saline lagoon connected to a bay in which coral reefs are found. The bay is surrounded by dry deciduous vegetation and a well-developed woodland vegetation. The area provides refugee for many birds, such as the IUCN Red Listed Caribbean coot (Fulicacaribaea). The lagoon also supports a significant fraction of the global population of the Common tern (Sterna hirundo) and is part of a regional network of foraging sites for the Caribbean flamingo (Phoenicopterusruber), protected under the Convention of Migratory Species. Freshwater habitat is scarce in Curaçao and therefore of great ecological, social and economic value. The dam of Malpais is located downstream of a local watershed. Freshwater infiltrates into the soil, recharging groundwater reservoirs which allow woodlands to grow in the area. When freshwater is present, the area harbors also Anatidae spp. that are protected under the Convention of Migratory Species. One of the current threats that may affect the ecological character of the site is the landfillsituated c. 2 km away. Ramsar Site no. 2117. Most recent RIS information: 2013.
Muizenberg(RAMSAR area 05/02/2013; Curaçao; 65 ha; 12°09'29"N 068°55'07"W. Important Bird Area; Natural Park).Muizenberg comprises an intermittent shallow lake created by the damming of a stream that drains the surrounding low hills. Periodically inundated grassland and woodland surround the wetland. A separate small pond, in ‘Kaya Fortuna’, is situated 200m to the west. The Muizenbergarea is internationally significant for its population of the Caribbean coot (Fulicacaribaea), near-threatened under the IUCN Red List, and the Caribbean flamingo (Phoenicopterusruber) protected under the Convention of Migratory Species, but it also supports many other waterbirds, both residents and migrants that are internationally important such asAnatidae spp. that are protected under the Convention of Migratory Species. The Muizenberg dam was built by Shell Curaçao in 1915 to collect freshwater for industrial cooling. With a capacity of 650,000 m3, it is the largest freshwater reservoir on the island. The area was designated as a (EilandelijkOntwikkelingsplan(EOP) 1996) for the improvement of urban living conditions of the nearby population and is mainly used by hikers for recreational purposes. Illegal dumping of garbage, pollution, drainage of surrounding wetlands, and recreational disturbance are regarded as the main potential threats. A general environmental education program is being implemented. Ramsar Site no. 2118. Most recent RIS information: 2013.
Northwest Curaçao(RAMSAR area 05/02/2013; Curaçao; 2,441 ha; 12°21'11"N 069°05'00"W. Important Bird Area, Conservation Areas in the EOP 1996). The area comprises a great variety of ecosystems such as coral reefs, coastal lagoons with sea grass beds and mangroves, coastal limestone terraces, inland hills supporting evergreen woodland, freshwater dams, natural springs and dry deciduous shrublands. The Ramsar site includes parts of SheteBoka and Christoffel National Parks (‘Conservation areas’ in the EOP 1996). The wetland covers approximately 20 km of the rocky, wave-exposed north coast of Curaçao, including 10 pocket beaches (“bokas”) and at least 3 inland bays that are used as nesting and foraging sites for threatened sea turtle species as Dermochelyscoriacea and Eretmochelyimbricata. There is also a breeding colony of more than 500 individuals of Least Tern. Moreover, the northwestern coast of Curaçao locally harbors fringing coral reefs, characterized by more than 80% coral cover and the presence of such critically endangered coral species as Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis as well as endangered fish species like Epinephelusitajara. Some of the caves in the area areimportant as nesting and roosting sites for rare and endemic bat species andIndian drawings can be found estimated to be more than 5,000 years old. Numerous manmade dams in the area retain freshwater for several months after the wet season has passed. Subterraneous groundwater reservoirs in turn sustain local vegetation types year-round which are used by several bird species, pollinating bats and mammals to survive Curaçao's dry season. Ramsar Site no. 2119. Most Recent RIS information: 2013.
Rif-Sint Marie(RAMSAR area 05/02/2013.Curaçao; 667 ha; 12°12'16"N 069°03'16"W. Conservation Area, Important Bird Area). The area of Rif-Sint Marie is relatively undisturbed and undeveloped and comprises a salt mash surrounded by mud flats, shrub land, and woodlands (including relatively undisturbed limestone woodland vegetation). The marsh is a strategic feeding habitat for flamingos and several waterbirds. The coral reef of Rif-Sint Marie is well developed and shelters several threatened coral species such as Acropora palmata and Acropora cervicornis, as well as endangered turtle species as Dermochelyscoriacea and Eretmochelyimbricata and threatened fishes like the Goliath grouper Epinephelusitajara. Dense thickets of Elkhorn coral sustain major ecological processes such as gross community calcification and nitrogen fixation; dense populations of this branching species dissipate wave energy and thus protect the coast. The area is currently used for recreational purposes like hiking, biking and guided eco-tours. The major threats to the site are uncontrolled access of visitors with dogs disturbing flamingos, unwise development of touristic infrastructures in the surrounding area and oil spills from a nearby transshipment facility. Ramsar Site no. 2120. Most recent RIS information: 2013.
Most of the lands belong to the Curaçao islandgovernment and are managed by local NGO’s such as UniekCuraçao andCARMABI, which are both foundations.The latter NGO also manages the Marine Park. In 2012, CARMABI merged the management of SheteBoka and Christoffel Parks to increase park efficiency, reduce the costs and to improve income generation.
1.4 On-going projects Projects under study
No fishing zones. 5 areas will be designated as no-fishing zones (from shore to 150 m off coast) and will encompass about 30% of the island's coastline: Oostpunt, Spanish Water Bay, St Marie, Lagun and North East.
New UNESCO WHS.West's Curaçao Plantation Areais on the provisional list to be recognized as an UNESCO World Heritage site
Oostpunt reef conservation.Proposal for an alternative development scenario for Oostpunt (CARMABI) : Proposed plan for Parke Nashonal Oostpunt
Shark and mammal sanctuary.Designation of a shark and marine mammal sanctuary in the Caribbean waters of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Dutch Caribbean Nature Policy Plan 2013-2017, Project "Save our sharks", Debrot et al. 2011). Establishment of a Dutch Caribbean Shark National Plan of Action (van Beek et al. 2014).
AICOM bat reservation(number A-ABC-003.) As of November 25th, 2014 the caves along the limestone terraces of Curaçao’s North coast have been recognized as an Area of Importance for the Conservations of Bats (AICOM).
1.5 International recognition of natural habitats and wildlife
Four areas are since 2013 listedas RAMSAR sites (4274 ha total; see above) and five Important Bird Areas (IBAs) are present on the island, together covering 16,281 ha.
1.6 Action, management plans
- Curaçao Underwater Management Plan (Van't Hof 1985)
- Management Plan for the natural resources of the EEZ of the Dutch Caribbean (Meesters et al. 2010)
- Fishing legislation (gill nets and harpoons etc )
- Nature plan (Curaçao Government last revision: 2008; currently not effective)
- Spatial planning laws (LGRO, EOP, EROC)
- RAMSAR management plans (nearly finished, 2015)
- Bat research and Conservation Plan for ABC islands (Simal et al. 2011. Bat research and conservation plan Aruba, Curaçao and Bonaire).
2. Biological importance of the ecosystems
2.1 Species outcomes
List of Taxa assessed as globally threatened (IUCN Red List). List of species are indicated in Appendix 1.
Taxonomic Group / Critically endangered / Endangered / Vulnerable / TotalPlants / 2 / 1 / 3
Invertebrates
- Corals
- Molluscs / 2 / 2 / 4
1 / 9
Fishes / 2 / 3 / 8 (+6 occ.) / 13 (+6 occ.)
Sharks and Rays / 1 (+ 1 occ.) / 1 (+ 2 occ.) / 2 (+ 3 occ.)
Reptiles / 1 / 1 (+ 1 occ.) / (2 occ.) / 2 (+ 3 occ.)
Birds / 1 / 1
Mammals
- Bats
- Marine mammals / 1
(1 occ.) / 1 (+ 1 occ.)
Total / 5 / 9 (+2 occ.) / 17 (+ 11 occ.)
2.2. List of species that are geographically restricted
(References: Debrot and de Freitas 1991, Dilrosun et al. 2012, DCNA 2012b, Database "Flora of Curaçao": Hulsman et al. 2008, Petit et al. 2006, van Buurt 2006, Vermeij Mark pers. comm. 2015)
Taxonomic group / Number of endemic speciesPlants / - 5 plant species endemic to Bonaire and Curaçao (Agave boldinghiana, Chloris suringari, Maytenusversluysii, Myrciacurassavica, Paspalumbonairensis)
- 5 plant species endemic to ABC islands (Agave vivipara, Aristidaarubensis, Cynanchumboldinghii, Paspalumcurassavicum, Melocactusmacracanthos)
- at least 9 plant species endemic of ABC islands and the northern Venezuela and Colombia region (including 5 cacti).
Invertebrates
- Annelids
- Mollusks
- Arachnids
- Insects
- Crustacea
- Echinoderms / - 4 worms endemic of Curaçao (Bothromesostomapieti, Euschoengastria antillarum, Micropthalmusstocki, Wagenaariasimilis)
- 22 mollusk species restricted to ABC islands, including the vulnerable Hieroglyphic Cone(Conushieroglyphus) and 8species (6 terrestrial and 2 marine)strictly endemic of Curaçao(Debrot 2006).
- 13 mollusk species restricted to ABC islands and Venezuela-Colombia region
- 4arachnids endemic of Curaçao (Agauearubaensis, Camillinajeris, Pachychitracurazavia, Apocheiridiumcaribicum)
- 3 arachnids endemic of ABC islands
- 3butterflies (Strymonbasilides, Cyclargushuntingtoni, Hesperia curassavica) and 5beetles endemic toCuraçao
- 5 and 8 insects endemic of BC and ABC islands; 5 insect species endemic to ABC islands-northern Venezuela area
- 8 isopods endemic of Curaçao and 4 isopods endemic of BC islands
- 1 crinoid endemic of ABC islands and northern Venezuela and Colombia region (Nemastergrandis)
Freshwater fishes / - 2 Molly fishes endemic of ABC islands and the northern Venezuela and Colombia region (Cyprinodondearborni, Poeciliavandepolli)
Reptiles / - 1 snake endemic of Curaçao: Three scales ground snake (Liophistriscalis)
- 2lizardspecies endemic of Curaçao:Whiptail lizard species (Cnemidophorusmurinus), Gecko (Phyllodactylus martini)
- 1 lizard endemic of AC islands (Anolislineatus)and 1 lizard endemic of BC and Venezuelan islands: Gecko (Gonatodesantillensis)
Birds / Species taxonomic level[A1]:
- 2 bird species restricted to BC islands-northern Venezuela region and the Caribbean islands: Yellow-shouldered Amazon (Amazona barbadensis), Caribbean Elaenia (Elaenia martinica)
Subspecies taxonomic level:
- 3endemic bird subspecies restricted to Curaçao. 1 BC & 3 CA endemic subspecies;
- 9 ABC islands only or in combination with the Venezuelan islands endemic subspecies (including Caribbean Elaenia (Elaeniamartinica))
Mammals / - 2 bat species restricted to ABC islands and northern Venezuela-Colombia region: Curaçaoan Long-nosed Bat (Leptonycteriscurasoae), CuraçaoMyotis (Myotisnesopolus)
- 1 mouse species restricted to ABC islands and northern Venezuela-Colombia region: Hummelinck's Vesper Mouse (Calomyshummelincki)
- 1 deer sub-species endemic of Curaçao: White Tailed Deer (Odocoileusvirginianuscurassavicus)
- 1 hare sub-species endemic of ABC islands: Cottontail hare (Silvilagusfloridensisnigronuchalis)
Total / - 35 species strictly endemic of Curaçao
- 38 species endemic of ABC islands and 16 CA & CB endemics
- 36species endemic of Leeward islands, northern Venezuela-Colombia region
2.3 Species aggregations / List of species occurring at key stages of their life-cycles
- The largest herbivorous fish in the Atlantic, the Rainbow parrotfish (Scarusguacamaia) has an obligate dependence on mangroves that represent a critical habitat for this species during its juvenile life stage. This species occurs in relatively high density in Spanish Water Bay and St Jorisbaai, inland bays bordered by dense mangroves (Dilrosun et al. 2012). Nursery habitats, enhance reef populations of multiple herbivorous species, such as the Blue parrotfish (Scaruscoeruleus), the Redtail parrotfish (Sparisomachrysopterum), the Striped parrotfish (Scarusiserti) and the Doctorfish (Acanthuruschirurgus) (Nagelkerken& van der Velde 2002). Herbivores are strong determinants of benthic community structure on coral reefs. When grazing by herbivorous fish is reduced, algal proliferation is no longer controlled so corals become overgrown, particularly juvenile corals, so that the replenishment of coral populations becomes compromised.Many other economically and ecologically valuable Curaçaoan fish species depend on nursery habitats (i.e., mangroves and seagrass beds) located inside inland bays across the island (e.g., Awa Blancu, St. JorisBaai, Spanish Water). Inland bays support high densities of piscivorous fish juvenilesthat spent their earliest life stages inside mangroves and seagrass beds (Nagelkerken& van der Velde 2002). These species, such as barracudas and snappers are particularly susceptible to overfishing because of their slow growth rates, late age of maturity, protogynous hermaphroditism and predictable adult movement patterns, such as spawning aggregations (Bohnsack 1994, Mumby et al. 2006). Global overfishing of coral reefs has significantly diminished herbivorous fish populations of and in many locations throughout the Caribbean; parrotfish are a major component of reef fisheries, especially when slower-growing predators are overharvested (Mumby et al. 2006). Therefore, preserving herbivore fish populations is of crucial importance to ensure overall ecosystem functioning.
- (Sea)bird species congregate in 4 IBAs on the island:North-east Park and Coast IBA, Jan Thiel Bay IBA, Malpais-St Michiel IBA, Klein Curaçao IBA.
3. Habitat outcomes
3.1Terrestrial areas
Vegetation types
- Christoffel National Park supports one of largestcontiguous areas of woodlandvegetationsremaining on the island, encompassing 21 of the 22 vegetation types (including unique primary vegetation types) found on the islandand harborsapproximately 50 locally rare plant species and a number of restricted and/or threatened plant species (Beers et al. 1997, Dilrosun et al. 2012).
- A number of areas have been identified for their exceptional biodiversity conservation value (Debrot and de Freitas 1991), including the areas of Knip, Jeremi and St. Hironymus due to the presence of endemic species (Myrciacurassavica) and locally rare plant species (Acanthocereustetragonus, Ananas sp., Anthuriumhookeri, Byrsonimacrassifolia, Capparistenuisiliqua, Centauriumquitense, Chiococcamacrantha, Clusia sp., Guettardacaracasana, Helicterescarthaginensis, Nephrolepisbiserrata, Polypodiumaureum, Anemia hirsute, Lygodiumvenustum, Peperomiablanda, Phoradendrontrinervium, Polystachyacerea, Psidiumsartorianum, Tillandsia fasciculate, Vitexcompressa, V. cymosa, Soroceasprucei, Sabal sp.). The Malpais area includes patches of vegetation with the endangered species Guaiacum sanctum.