Approaches to Archaeological Survey in the Old World

AE201

Approaches to Archaeological Survey in the Old World

Prof. John Cherry, Fall 2006

Bibliography

Despite a length that might seem to imply comprehensiveness, this bibliography is only a very partial listing of publications from the enormous (and fuzzily defined) fields of survey, landscape archaeology, and settlement pattern studies. It is also personal, in that it concentrates heavily on Greece and Italy (the areas I know best), with some coverage of other circum-Mediterranean regions, but little for western Asia or areas beyond the Classical lands, and virtually nothing from the New World (for which there is also a huge literature): we can explore these areas, as your interests dictate. The bibliography begins with some of the more important general literature; works its way through methodology, interpretation, and comparison; and then offers a selective listing of some sources relevant to topics and themes on which survey might be able to shed some light. At the end there is a very eclectic list of some survey case-studies; I will try to suggest bibliography for other areas not covered here, if you have particular geographical interests you would like to explore further. For regional survey data on-line, please see the second category in this bibliography (“Internet Resources”), which directs you to a recent (2003) list of all the web-based resources of which I was then aware.

JFC/September 2006

Selected general literature:

Ammerman, A.J. 1981. Surveys and archaeological research. Annual Review of Anthropology 10: 63-88.

Ashmore, W. and Knapp, A.B., eds. 1999. Archaeologies of Landscape: Contemporary Perspectives. Oxford.

Athanassopoulos, E.F., and Wandsnider, L. eds., Mediterranean Archaeological Landscapes: Current Issues. Philadelphia.

Banning, E. B. 2002. Archaeological Survey (Manuals in Archaeological Method, Theory, and Technique). New York.

Barker, G. 1985. Landscape archaeology in Italy. In C. Malone and S. Stoddart, eds., Papers in Italian Archaeology IV, Part I (BAR 243), 1-19. Oxford.

Barker, G. 1991. Approaches to archaeological survey. In G. Barker and J. Lloyd, eds., Roman Landscapes: Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Region, 1-9. London.

Barker, G. 1995. A Mediterranean Valley: Landscape Archaeology and Annales History in the Biferno Valley. London.

Barker, G. 1996. Regional archaeological projects: trends and traditions in Mediterranean Europe. Archaeological Dialogues 3.2: 160-75.

Barker, G. and Hodges, R. 1981. Archaeology in Italy, 1980: new directions and misdirections. In G. Barker and R. Hodges, eds., Archaeology and Italian Society: Prehistoric, Roman and Medieval Studies (BAR Int. 102), 1-16. Oxford.

Barker, G. and Lloyd, J., eds. 1991. Roman Landscapes: Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Region. London. [See also reviews by S.E. Alcock, Journal of Field Archaeology 20 (1993) 190-92; B. Hitchner, American Journal of Archaeology 98 (1994) 347-351.]

Barker, G., and Mattingly, D., general eds. 1999-2000. The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, 5 vols. Oxford. [Review article on this series: J.F. Cherry, Vox POPULI? Landscape archaeology in Mediterranean Europe, Journal of Roman Archaeology 15: 561-73.]

Barnes, G., ed. 1992. Analytical Field Survey [=World Archaeology 24.2, October 1992]. London.

Billman, B.R. and Feinman, G.M., eds. 1999. Settlement Pattern Studies in the Americas: Fifty Years since Virú. Washington.

Bintliff, J.L., ed. 1990. Archaeology and the Annales School. Leicester.

Bintliff, J.L. 2000. Beyond dots on the map: future directions for surface artefact survey in Greece. In J.L. Bintliff, M. Kuna and N. Venclová, eds., The Future of Surface Artefact Survey in Europe, 3-20. Sheffield.

Bintliff, J.L., Kuna, M. and Venclová, N., eds. 2000. The Future of Surface Artefact Survey in Europe. Sheffield.

Bintliff, J.L. and Sbonias, K., eds. 1999. Reconstructing Past Population Trends in Mediterranean Europe (3000 BC - AD 1800). Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume I).

Cherry, J.F. 1983. Frogs around the pond: perspectives in current archaeological survey projects. In D. Keller and D. Rupp, eds., Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Area (BAR Int. 155), 375-416. Oxford.

Cherry, J.F. 1995. Regional survey in the Aegean: the ‘New Wave’ (and after). In P.N. Kardulias, ed., Beyond the Site: Regional Studies in the Aegean Area, 91-112. Lanham, MD.

Cherry, J.F. 2003. Archaeology beyond the site: regional survey and its future. In R. Leventhal and J. Papadopoulos, eds., Archaeology in the Mediterranean: The Present State and Future Scope of a Discipline (UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series), 137-59. Los Angeles.

Cherry, J.F. 2004. Cyprus, the Mediterranean, and survey: current issues and future trends. In M. Iacovou, ed., Archaeological Field Survey in Cyprus: Past History, Future Potentials (BSA Studies). London.

Cherry, J.F. 2005. Survey. In C, Renfrew and P. Bahn, eds., Archaeology: The Key Concepts, 248-54. London.

Cherry, J.F., Davis, J.L. and Mantzourani, E. 1991. Landscape Archaeology as Long-term History: Northern Keos in the Cycladic Islands. Los Angeles.

Collins, J.M., and Molyneaux, B.L. 2003. Archaeological Survey. (Archaeologist’s Toolkit, vol. 2). Walnut Creek, CA.

Davis, J.L. 1991. Contributions to a Mediterranean rural archaeology: historical case studies from the Ottoman Cyclades. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 4: 131-216.

Doukellis, P.N. and Mendoni, L.G., eds. 1994. Structures rurales et sociétés antiques. Paris.

Doukellis, P.N. and Mendoni, L.G., eds. 2004. Perception and Evaluation of Cultural Landscapes. Athens.

Dyson, S. 1982. Archaeological survey in the Mediterranean basin: a review of recent research. American Antiquity 47: 87-98.

1990. Reconstructing the landscape of rural Italy. In W.M. Kelso and R. Most, Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology, 245-63. Charlottesville.

Ebert, J.I. 1992. Distributional Archaeology. Albuquerque.

Everson, P., and Williamson, T., eds. 1998. The Archaeology of Landscape. Manchester.

Ferdière, A. and Zadora Rio, E., eds. 1986. La Prospection Archéologique, Paysage et Peuplement. Paris.

Fish, S.K. and Kowalewski, S.A., eds. 1990. The Archaeology of Regions: A Case for Full-coverage Survey. Washington, D.C.

Fotiadis, M. 1995. Modernity and the past-still-present: politics of time in the birth of regional archaeological projects in Greece. American Journal of Archaeology 99:59-78.

1997Cultural identity and regional archaeological projects: beyond ethical questions. Archaeological Dialogues 4:102-13

Francovich, R. and Patterson, H., eds. 2000. Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume V).

Gaffney, V. and Tingle, M. 1989. The Maddle Farm Project: an integrated survey of prehistoric and Roman landscape on the Berkshire Downs. (BAR British 200). Oxford.

Gillings, M., Mattingly, D., and van Dalen, J., eds. 1999. Geographical Information Systems and Landscape Archaeology. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume III).

Greene, K. 1986. The Archaeology of the Roman Economy. London. (esp. chapter 5).

Haselgrove, C., Millett, M. and Smith, I., eds. 1985. Archaeology from the Ploughsoil: studies in the collection and interpretation of field survey data. Sheffield.

Hodder, I. and Orton, C. 1976. Spatial Analysis in Archaeology. Cambridge.

Hole, F. 1987. The Archaeology of Western Iran: settlement and society from prehistory to the Islamic conquest. Washington, D.C.

Horden, P. and Purcell, N. 2000. The Corrupting Sea: A Study of Mediterranean History. Oxford.

Jameson, M.H., Runnels, C.N., and van Andel, T.J. 1994. A Greek Countryside: The Southern Argolid from Prehistory to the Present Day. Stanford.

Johnson, G.A. 1977. Aspects of regional analysis in archaeology. Annual Review of Anthropology 6: 479-508.

Kardulias, P.N., ed., Beyond the Site: Regional Studies in the Aegean Area. Lanham, MD.

Keller, D. and Rupp, D., eds. 1983. Archaeological Survey in the Mediterranean Area (BAR International Series 155). Oxford.

Kelso, W.M. and Most, R., eds., 1990. Earth Patterns: Essays in Landscape Archaeology. Charlottesville.

Knapp, A.B., ed. 1992. Archaeology, Annales and Ethnohistory. Cambridge.

Leveau, P., Sillières, P., and Vallat, J.-P. 1993. Campagnes de la Méditerranée romaine. Paris.

Leveau, P., Trément, F., Walsh, K. and Barker, G., eds. 1999. Environmental Reconstruction in Mediterranean Landscape Archaeology. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume II).

Macready, S. and Thompson, F., eds. 1985. Archaeological Field Survey in Britain and Abroad. London.

O'Brien, M. and Lewarch, D., eds. 1981. Plowzone Archaeology: contributions to theory and technique. Nashville.

Pasquinucci, M. and Trément, F., eds. 2000. Non-Destructive Techniques Applied to Landscape Archaeology. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume IV).

Potter, T.W. 1979. The Changing Landscape of Southern Etruria. London.

Renfrew, C. and Wagstaff, J.M., eds. 1982. An Island Polity: the archaeology of exploitation in Melos. Cambridge.

Rosen, S.A. 2003. Settlement and survey archaeology: a view from a “periphery.” In R. Leventhal and J. Papadopoulos, eds., Archaeology in the Mediterranean: The Present State and Future Scope of a Discipline (UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series), 173-79. Los Angeles.

Rossignol, J. and Wandsnider, L.A., eds. 1992. Space, Time, and Archaeological Landscapes. New York.

Ruppé, R.J. 1966. The archaeological survey: a defense. American Antiquity 31: 313-33.

Schofield, A.J., ed. 1991. Interpreting Artifact Scatters: contributions to ploughzone archaeology. Oxford.

Shipley, G. and Salmon, J. 1996. Human Landscapes in Classical Antiquity. London.

Smith, C.A., ed. 1976a. Regional Analysis Volume I: economic systems. Volume II: I. New York.

1976b. Regional Analysis Volume II: Social Systems. New York.

Snodgrass, A.M. 1982. La prospection archéologique en Grèce et dans le monde mediterranéen. Annales ESC 37: 800-812.

Snodgrass, A.M. 1987. An Archaeology of Greece: the present state and future scope of a discipline. Berkeley. [Esp. chs. 2-4.]

Snodgrass, A.M. 1990. Survey archaeology and the rural landscape of the Greek city. In O. Murray and S. Price, eds., The Greek City from Homer to Alexander, 113-36. Oxford.

Snodgrass, A.M. 1991. Archaeology and the study of the Greek city. In J. Rich and A. Wallace-Hadrill, eds., City and Country in the Ancient World, 1-23. London.

Snodgrass, A.M. and Cherry, J.F. 1988. On not digging up the past. The Cambridge Review 109: 9-13.

Stanish, C. 2003. A brief Americanist perspective on settlement archaeology.In R. Leventhal and J. Papadopoulos, eds., Archaeology in the Mediterranean: The Present State and Future Scope of a Discipline (UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series), 161-71. Los Angeles.

Sullivan, A.P. III, ed. 1998. Surface Archaeology. Albuquerque.

Spoery, P., ed. 1992. Geoprospection in the Archaeological Landscape. (Oxbow Monograph 18.) Oxford.

Terrenato, N. 2000. Surface thoughts: future directions in Italian field surveys. In J.L. Bintliff, M. Kuna and N. Venclová, eds., The Future of Surface Artefact Survey in Europe, 21-28. Sheffield.

Ucko, P.J., and Layton, R., eds. 1999. The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape. London

Wagstaff, J.M., ed. 1987. Landscape and Culture: geographical and archaeological perspectives. Oxford.

Wilkinson, T.J. 2003. Archaeological Landscapes of the Near East. Tucson.

Wilkinson, T.J. 2004. The archaeology of landscape. In J.L. Bintliff, ed., A Companion to Archaeology, 334-56. Oxford.

Internet Resources:

Gates, J., Alcock, S.E., and Cherry, J.F. 2004. Internet resources for Mediterranean regional survey projects: a preliminary listing. In S.E. Alcock and J.F. Cherry (eds.), Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, 243-51. Oxford.

CGMA (Collaboratory for GIS and Mediterranean Archaeology). 2002.

Methodology:

Ammerman, A.J. and Feldman, M.V. 1978. Replicated collection of site surfaces. American Antiquity 43: 734-40.

Binford, L.R. 1964. A consideration of archaeological research design. American Antiquity 29: 425-41.

Blanton, R.E. 2001. Mediterranean myopia. Antiquity 75: 627-29.

Cherry, J.F. 1982. A preliminary definition of site distribution on Melos. In Renfrew, C. and Wagstaff, J., eds., An Island Polity: the archaeology of exploitation in Melos, 10-23. Cambridge.

Cherry, J.F., Davis, J.L. and Mantzourani, E. 1991. Part I: Theory and Methods. In J.F. Cherry et al., eds., Landscape Archaeology as Long-term History: Northern Keos in the Cycladic Islands, 3-54. Los Angeles.

Francovich, R. and Patterson, H., eds. 2000. Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume V).

Gaffney, C. and Gaffney, V. 1988. Some quantitative approaches to site territory and land use from the surface record. In J. Bintliff et al., eds., Conceptual Issues in Environmental Archaeology, 82-90. Edinburgh.

Gaffney, V. and Tingle, M. 1984. The tyranny of the site: method and theory in field survey. Scottish Archaeological Review 3: 134-40.

1989. The Maddle Farm Project: an integrated survey of prehistoric and Roman landscape on the Berkshire Downs. (BAR British 200). Oxford.

Gillings, M., Mattingly, D., and van Dalen, J., eds. 1999. Geographical Information Systems and Landscape Archaeology. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume III).

Given, M., and Knapp, A.B., eds. 2002. The Sydney Cyprus Survey Project: Social Approaches to Regional Archaeological Survey (UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Monograph Series). Los Angeles.

Hayes, J. 2000. The current state of Roman ceramic studies in Mediterranean survey, or, handling pottery from surveys. In R. Francovich and H. Patterson, eds., Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages (POPULUS 5), 105-109. Oxford.

Hope-Simpson, R. and Cherry, J.F. 1984. The analysis of data from surface surveys. Journal of Field Archaeology 11: 115-20.

Kirkby, A. and Kirkby, M. 1976. Geomorphic processes and surface survey of archaeological sites in semi-arid areas. In J. Davidson and M. Shackley, eds., Geoarchaeology: earth science and the past, 229-53. London.

Mattingly, D. 2000. Methods of collection, recording and quantification. In R. Francovich and H. Patterson, eds., Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages (POPULUS 5), 5-15. Oxford.

Lewarch, D. and O'Brien, M. 1981. The expanding role of surface assemblages in archaeological research. In M.B. Schiffer, ed., Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 4: 297-342.

Plog, S., Plog, F. and Wait, W. 1978. Decision making in modern surveys. In M.B. Schiffer, ed., Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 1: 383-421.

Redman, C. and Watson, P.J. 1970. Systematic intensive surface collection. American Antiquity 35: 279-91.

Sarris, A., and R.E. Jones. 2000. Geophysical and related techniques applied to archaeological survey in the Mediterranean: a review. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 13.1: 3-75.

Schiffer, M.B., Sullivan, A.P., and Klinger, T.C. 1978. The design of archaeological surveys. World Archaeology 10: 1-29.

Shennan, S. 1985. Experiments in the collection and analysis of archaeological survey data: the East Hampshire survey. Sheffield.

Terrenato, N., and Ammerman, A.J. 1996. Visibility and site recovery in the Cecina Valley Survey, Italy.Journal of Field Archaeology 23: 91-109

Off-site data:

Alcock, S.E., Cherry, J.F. and Davis, J.L. 1994. Intensive survey, agricultural practice and the classical landscape of Greece. In I. Morris, ed., Classical Greece: Ancient Histories, Modern Archaeologies, 135-168. Cambridge.

Bintliff, J. and Snodgrass, A.M. 1988. Off-site pottery distributions: a regional and inter-regional perspective. Current Anthropology 29: 506-13.

Cherry, J.F., Davis, J.L. and Mantzourani, E. 1991. Data evaluation and offsite distributions. In J.F. Cherry et al., eds., Landscape Archaeology as Long-term History: Northern Keos in the Cycladic Islands, 37-54. Los Angeles.

Dunnell, R.C. and Dancey, W.S. 1983. The siteless survey: a regional scale data collection strategy. In M.B. Schiffer, ed., Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 267-87.

Ebert, J. 1992. Distributional Archaeology. Albuquerque.

Foley, R. 1981. Off-site archaeology: an alternative approach for the short-sited. In I. Hodder et al., eds., Pattern of the Past, 157-83. Cambridge.

Francovich, R. and Patterson, H., eds. 2000. Extracting Meaning from Ploughsoil Assemblages. Oxford. ( = G. Barker and D. Mattingly, eds., The Archaeology of Mediterranean Landscapes, Volume V).

Gallant, T.W. 1986. 'Background noise' and site definition: a contribution to survey methodology. Journal of Field Archaeology 13: 403-18.

Given, M. 2004. Mapping and manuring: can we compare sherd density figures? In S.E. Alcock and J.F. Cherry (eds.), Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, 13-21. Oxford.

Stoddart, S. and Whitehead, N. 1991. Cleaning the Iguvine stables: site and off-site analysis from a central Mediterranean perspective. In A.J. Schofield, ed., Interpreting Artifact Scatters: contributions to ploughzone archaeology, 141-48. Oxford.

Thomas, D.H. 1975. Non-site sampling in archaeology: up the creek without a site. In J.W. Mueller, ed., Sampling in Archaeology, 61-81. Tucson.

Wilkinson, T.J. 1982. The definition of ancient manured zones by means of extensive sherd-sampling techniques. Journal of Field Archaeology 9: 323-33.

Wilkinson, T.J. 1988. The archaeological component of agricultural soils in the Middle East: the effects of manuring in antiquity. In W. Groenman van Waateringe and M. Robinson, eds., Man-made soils: symposia of the association for environmental archaeology 6 (BAR Int. 410), 93-114. Oxford.

Wilkinson, T.J. 1989. Extensive sherd scatters and land use intensity: some recent results. Journal of Field Archaeology 16: 31-46.

Sampling:

Cherry, J.F. 1982. A preliminary definition of site distribution on Melos. In Renfrew, C. and Wagstaff, J., eds., An Island Polity: the archaeology of exploitation in Melos, 10-23. Cambridge.

Cherry, J.F., Gamble, G. and Shennan, S., eds. 1978. Sampling in Contemporary British Archaeology (BAR British Series 50). Oxford.

Cherry, J.F. and Shennan, S. 1978. Sampling cultural systems: some perspectives on the application of probabilistic regional survey in Britain. In J.F. Cherry et al., eds., Sampling in Contemporary British Archaeology (BAR British Series 50), 17-48. Oxford.

Fish, S.K. and Kowalewski, S.A., eds. 1990. The Archaeology of Regions: a case for full-coverage survey. Washington, D.C.

Judge, J., Ebert, J. and Hitchcock, R. 1975. Sampling in regional archaeological survey. In J.W. Mueller, ed., Sampling in Archaeology, 82-123. Tucson.

Mueller, J.W. 1974. The use of sampling in archaeological survey. American Antiquity 39: 1-91.

Mueller, J.W., ed. 1975. Sampling in Archaeology. Tucson.

Nance, J.D. 1983. Regional sampling in archaeological survey: the statistical perspective. In M.B. Schiffer, ed., Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6: 289-356.

Orton, C. 2000. Sampling in Archaeology (Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology). Cambridge.

Plog, S. 1976. Relative efficiencies of sampling techniques for archaeological surveys. In K.V. Flannery, eds., The Early Mesoamerican Village, 136-58. New York.

1978. Sampling in archaeological surveys: a critique. American Antiquity 43: 280-85.

Plog, S., Plog, F. and Wait, W. 1978. Decision making in modern surveys. In M.B. Schiffer, ed., Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 1: 383-421.

Read, D.W. 1986. Sampling procedures for regional surveys: a problem of representativeness and effectiveness. Journal of Field Archaeology 13: 477-91.

Redman, C.L. 1974. Archaeological Sampling Strategies (Addison-Wesley Module in Anthropology 55). Reading, MA.

Rogg, A.E. and Fuller, S.L. 1977. Probabilistic survey sampling: making parameter estimates. In M.B. Schiffer, and G.J. Gumerman, eds., Conservation Archaeology, 227-38. London.

Schiffer, M.B., Sullivan, A.P., and Klinger, T.C. 1978. The design of archaeological surveys. World Archaeology 10: 1-29.

Shennan, S. 1985. Experiments in the collection and analysis of archaeological survey data: the East Hampshire survey. Sheffield.

Shennan, S. 1988. Ch. 14: Probabilistic sampling in archaeology. In S. Shennan, Quantifying Archaeology. Edinburgh.

Tartaron, T. F. 2003. The archaeological survey: sampling strategies and field methods. In J. Wiseman and K. Zachos, eds., Landscape Archaeology in Southern Epirus, Greece: I (Hesperia Supplement 32), 23-46. Princeton.

Terrenato, N. 2004. Sample size matters! The paradox of global trends and local surveys. In S.E. Alcock and J.F. Cherry (eds.), Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, 36-48. Oxford.

van de Velde, P. 2001. An extensive alternative to intensive survey: point sampling in the Riu Mannu Survey Project, Sardinia. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 14.1: 24-52.

Formation processes and the accuracy of the surface record:

Baker, C.M. 1978. The size effect: an explanation of variability in surface artefact assemblage content. American Antiquity 43: 288-93.

Binford, L.R. 1983. In Pursuit of the Past: Decoding the Archaeological Record. New York.

Bintliff, J., Howard, P. and Snodgrass, A. 1999. The hidden landscape of prehistoric Greece. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 12.2: 139-68 (with responses by G. Barker, C. Mee and W. Cavanagh, R. Schon, and S.M. Thompson in Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 13.1: 100-123).

Bintliff, J., Farinetti, E., Howard, P., Sarri, K., and Sbonias, K. 2002. Classical farms, hidden prehistoric landscapes and Greek rural survey: a response and an update. Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 15.2: 259-65.

Boismeier, W.A. 1997. Modelling the Effects of Tillage Processes on Artefact Distributions in the Ploughzone: A Simulation of Tillage-induced Pattern Formation (BAR British Series 259). Oxford.

Davis, J.L. 2004. Are the landscapes of Greek prehistory hidden? A comparative approach. In S.E. Alcock and J.F. Cherry (eds.), Side-by-Side Survey: Comparative Regional Studies in the Mediterranean World, 22-35. Oxford.

Halstead, P. et al. 1978. Behavioral archaeology and refuse patterns: a case study. Norwegian Archaeological Review 11: 118-31.

Haselgrove, C. 1985. Inference from ploughsoil artefact samples. In C. Haselgrove et al., eds., Archaeology from the Ploughsoil: studies in the collection and interpretation of field survey data, 7-29. Sheffield.