Efficacy of Cannabis

EFFICACY OF CANNABIS

PREPARED & SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY by ANNE LYNN MORGAN, M.D.

16348 78th Drive North

Palm Beach Gardens, Fl. 33408

Abuse/Addiction

Budney AJ, Roffman R, Stephens, RS & Walker D (2007) Marijuana Dependence and Its Treatment. Addiction Science & Clinical Practice. 4(1): 4-16.

Dreher M. (2002). Crack heads and roots daughters: The therapeutic use of cannabis in Jamaica. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, 2(3/4):121-33.
Epstein DH & Preston KL. (2003). Does cannabis use predict poor outcomes for heroin-dependent patients on maintenance treatment? Past findings and more evidence against. Addiction, 98(3):269-79.
Feillin LE, Tetrault JM, Becker WC, Fiellin DA & Hoff RA (2012). Previous use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana and subsequent abuse of prescription opioids in young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health. published online 21 Aug. 2012.
Henningfeld JE, In: Hilts PJ. Is Nicotine Addictive? It Depends on Whose Criteria You Use. New York Times, August 2, 1994.
Hungund BL & Basavarajappa BS. (2004). Role of endocannabinoids and cannabinoid CB1 receptors in alcohol-related behaviors. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1025:515-27. (Review)
Kirby T & Barry AE (2012). Alcohol as a gateway drug: a study of US 12th graders. Journal of School Health. 82(8):371-379.
Labigalini E, Jr., Rodrigues LR & Da Silveira DX. (1999). Therapeutic use of cannabis by crack addicts in Brazil. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 31(4):451-5.
Lucas P. (2012). Cannabis as an adjunct to or substitute for opiates in the treatment of chronic pain. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 44(2):125-133.
Mathre, M. L. (1997). Risk of dependence and addiction. In M. L. Mathre (Ed.), Cannabis in medical practice. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
Mikuriya TH. (2004). Cannabis as a substitute for alcohol: a harm-reduction approach. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 4(1):79-93.
Morgan CJA, Freeman TP, Schafer GL & Curran HV. (2010). Cannabidiol attenuates the appetitive effects of ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol in humans smoking their chosen cannabis. Neruopsychopharmacology. 35:1879-85.
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W & Blakemore C (2007). Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. The Lancet. 369(9566):1047-1053.
Raby WN, Carpenter KM, Rothenberg J, Brooks AC, Jiang H, Sullivan M, Bisaga A, Comer S & Nunes EV. (2009). Intermittent marijuana use is associated with improved retention in naltexone treatment for opiate-dependence. American Journal of Addictions, 18(4): 301-8.
Reiman A. (2009). Cannabis as a substitute for alcohol and other drugs. Harm Reduction Journal. 6:35. DOI: 10.1186/1477-7517-6-35.
Rubio M, Villain H, Docaqne F, Roussel BD, Ramos JA, Vivien D, Fernandez-Ruiz J & Ali C. (2011). Pharmacological activation/inhibition of the cannabinoid system affects alcohol withdrawal-induced neuronal hypersensitivity to excitotoxic insults. PLoS One. 6(8):e23690.
Scavone JL, SterlingRC, Weinstein SP & Van Bockstaele EJ. (2013). Impact of cannabis use during stabilization on methadone maintenance treatment. The American Journal on Addictions. 22(4):344-31.

Alzheimer’s
Benito C, Nunez E, Tolo RM, Carrier EJ, Rabano A, et.al. (2003). Cannabinoid CB2 receptors and fatty acid amide hydrolase are selectively overexpressed in neuritic plaque-associated glia in Alzheimer’s Disease brains. J. Neurosci, 23(35),11136 –11141.
Cabral GA & Griffin-Thomas L. (2008). Cannabinoids as Therapeutic Agents for Ablating Neuroinflammatory Disease. Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders – Drug Target. 8:159-172.
Campbell VA & Gowran A. (2007). Alzheimer's disease; taking the edge off with cannabinoids? Br J Pharmacol.,152(5),655-62.
Carter G et al. (2010). Cannabis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: hypothetical and practical applications, and a call for clinical trials. American Journal of Hospice & Palliative Medicine. 27:347-56.
Centonze, D., Finazzi-Agro, A., Bernardi, G., Maccarrone, M. (2007). The endocannabinoid system intargeting inflammatoryneurodegenerative diseases. Trends in Pharmacological Science, 28(4) 180-187.
Eubanks, LM, Rogers, CJ, Beuscher IV, AE, Koob, GF, Olson, AJ, Dickerson, TJ & Janda, KD. (2006). A molecular link between the active component of marijuana and Alzheimer’s Disease pathology. Molecular Pharmaceutics,3(6) 773-777.
Ramírez, B.G., Blázquez, C., del Pulgar, T.G., Guzmán, M. & de Ceballos, M.L. (2005). Prevention of Alzheimer’s disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25(8): 1904-1913.
Walther, S., Mahlberg, R., Eichmann, U. & Kunz, D. (2006). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol for nighttime agitation in severe dementia. Psychopharmacology. 185:524-528.
Antibiotic potential
Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, Pagani A, Grassi G, Stravi M, Smith E & Mukhlesur Rahman M. (2008) Antibacterial cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa; a structure-activity study. Journal of Nat. Prod. 71:1427-30.
Anti-Inflammatory Effects
Malfait, A. M., Gallily, R., Sumariwalla, P. F., Malik, A. S., Andreakos, E., Mechoulam, R., et al. (2000). The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 97(17), 9561-9566.
Marchalant, et al (2007). Anti-inflammatory property of the cannabinoid agonist WIN-55212-2 in a rodent model of chronic brain inflammation. Neuroscience, 144: 1516-1522
Appetite Stimulation
Fride E, Bregman T & Kirkham TC. (2005). Endocannabinoids and food intake: newborn suckling and appetite regulation in adulthood. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 230(4):225-34. (Review)
Mechoulam R, & Hanu L. (2001). The cannabinoids: an overview. Therapeutic implications in vomiting and nausea after cancer chemotherapy, in appetite promotion, in multiple sclerosis and in neuroprotection. Pain Res Manag.,6(2), 67-73.
Riggs PK, Vaida F, Rossi SS, Sorkin LS, Gouaux B, Grant I & Ellis RJ. (2012). A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult men. Brain Res. 1431:46-52.
Arthritis
Blake DR, Robson P, Ho M, Jubb RW & McCabe CS. (2005). Preliminary assessment of the efficacy, tolerability and safety of a cannabis medicine (Sativex) in the treatment of pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology, 45:50-2.
Croxford & Yamamura (2005). Cannabinoids and the immune system: Potential for the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Journal of Neuroimmunology. 166:3-18.
Malfait AM, Gallily R, Sumariwalla PF, Malik AS, Andreakos E, Mechoulam R & Feldmann M . (2000). The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Procedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U S A, 97(17), 9561-6.
Sumariwalla et al (2004). A novel synthetic, nonpsychoactive cannabinoid acid (HU-320) with anti-inflammatory properties in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 50: 985-98.
Swift et al (2005). Survey of Australians using cannabis for medical purposes. Harm Reduction Journal, 4:2-18.
Ware et al (2005). The medicinal use of cannabis in the UK: results of a nationwide survey. International Journal of Clinical Practice, 59:291-5.
Cancer
Allister et al. (2005). Cannabinoids selectively inhibit proliferation and induce death of cultured human glioblastoma multiforme cells. Journal of Neurooncology. 74: 31-40.
Aviello G, Romano B, Borrelli F, Capasso R, Gallo L, Piscitelli F, DiMarzo V & Izzo AA. Chemopreventative effect of the non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid cannabidiol on experimental colon cancer. Journal of Molecular Medicine (Berlin). 2012, Jan 10. Doi 10.1007/200109-011-0856-x.
Bifulco M, Laezza C, Pisanti S, Gazzero P. Cannabinoids and cancer: pros and cons of an antitumour strategy. Br J Parmacol 2006;148:123 – 35.
Cafferal MM, Sarrio D, Palacios J, Guzman M & Sanchez C. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol inhibits cell cycle progression in human breast cancer cells through Cdc2 regulation. Cancer Research. 2006; 66:6615-6621.
Cafferal MM, Andradas C, Mira E, Pérez-Gómez E, Cerutti C, Moreno-Bueno G, Flores JM, Garcia-Real I, Palacios J, Manes S, Guzman M & Sánchez C. Cannabinoids reduce ErbB2-driven breast cancer progression through Akt inhibition. Molecular Cancer. 2010:9:196. Doi:10.1186/1467-4598-9-196
Calatozzolo et al (2007). Expression of cannabinoid receptors and neurotrophins in human gliomas. Neurological Sciences. 28: 304-310.
Carracedo A, Gironella M, Lorente M, Garcia S, Guzman M, Velasco G, & Iovanna JL. (2006). Cannabinoids induce apoptosis of pancreatic tumor cells via endoplasmic reticulum stress-related genes. Cancer Research. 66: 6748-6755.
Casanova et al (2003). Inhibition of skin tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo by activation of cannabinoid receptors. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 111: 43-50.
DiMarzo V et al (2006). Anti-tumor activity of plant cannabinoids with emphasis on the effect of Cannabidiol on human breast carcinoma. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics Fast Forward. 318:1375-1387.
Foroughi M, Hendson G, Sargent MA & Steinbok P. (2011). Spontaneous regression of septum pellucidum/forniceal pilocytic astrocytomas - possible role of Cannabis inhalation. Childs Nerv Syst. 27:671-9. DOI 10.1007/s00381-011-1410-4
Freimuth N, Ramer R & Hinz B (2010). Antitumorigenic effects of cannabinoids beyond apoptosis. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 332(2):336-344.
Galanti et al (2007). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol inhibits cell cycle progression by downregulation of E2F1 in human glioblastoma multforme cells. Acta Oncologica, 12: 1-9.
Guindon J, Hohmann A., Review: The endocannabinoid system and cancer: therapeutic implication. British Journal of Pharmacology. 2011; 163:1447-63.
Gustafsson et al (2006). Cannabinoid receptor-mediated apoptosis induced by R(+)-methanandamide and Win55,212 is associated with ceramide accumulation and p38 activation in mantle cell lymphoma. Molecular Pharmacology
Gustafsson K, Wang X, Severa D, Eriksson M, Kimby E, Merup M, Christensson B, Flygare J, & Sander B. (2008). Expression of cannabinoid receptors type 1 and type 2 in non-Hodgkin lymphoma: Growth inhibition by receptor activation. International Journal of Cancer. 123:1025-33.
Guzman, M. (2003). Cannabinoids: potential anticancer agents. Nature Reviews Cancer. 3: 745-755.
Guzman, M. et al (2004). Cannabinoids inhibit the vascular endothelial growth factor pathways in gliomas. Cancer Research, 64: 5617-5623.
Guzman M. (2006). Cannabinoids: potential antitumoral agents? Cannabinoids, 1(2):15-17.
Guzman M, Duarte MJ, Blazquez C, Ravina J, Rosa MC, Galve-Roperh I et al. (2006). A pilot clinical study of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in patients with recurrent glioblastoma multiforme. British Journal of Cancer, 95(2):197-203.
Hall W, Christie M, Currow D. Cannabinoids and cancer: causation, remediation, and palliation. Lancet Oncol 2005;6:35 – 42.
Hashibe M, Morgenstern H, Cui Y, Tashkin DP, Zhang, Z-F, Cozen W, Mack TM & Greenland S. (2006). Marijuana use and the risk of lung and upper aerodigestive tract cancers: results of a population-based case-control Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev., 15(10):1829-34.
Jia W, Hegde VL, Singh NP, Sisco D, Grant S, Nagarkatti M & Nagarkatti PS. (2006). Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-induced apoptosis in jurkat leukemic T cells regulated by translocation of Bad to mitochondria. Molecular Cancer Research, 4: 549-562.
Kogan, N. (2005). Cannabinoids and cancer. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry, 5(10): 941-52.
Leelawat S, Leelawat K, Narong S & Matangkasombut O. (2010) The dual effects of delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol on cholangiocarcinoma cells: anti-invasion activity at low concentration and apoptosis induction at high concentration. Cancer Investig.28(4):357-63
Liang C, McClean MD, Marsit C, Christensen B, Peters E, Nelson HH & Kelsey KT. (2009). A population-based case-control study of marijuana use and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Prevention Research. 2(8):759-768.
Liu et al Enhancing the in vitro cytotosic activity of A9-tetrahydrocannabinol in leukemic cells through a combinatorial approach. Leukemia and Lymphoma. 2008; 49:1800-09.
Malfitano AM, Ciaglia E, Gangemi G, Gazzerro P, Laezza C & Bifulco M. (2011). Update on the endocannabinoid system as an anticancer target. Expert Opin Ther Targets. 15(3):297-308.
Marcu JP, Christian RT, Lau D, Zielinski AJ, Horowitz MP, Lee J, Pakdel A, Allison J, Limbad C, Moore DH, Yount GL, Desprez PY & McAllister SD. (2010). Cannabidiol enhances the inhibitory effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on human glioblastoma cell proliferation and survival. Mol Cancer Ther. 9(1):180-9.
Massi P et al (2004). Antitumor effects of Cannabidiol, a non-psychotropic cannabinoid, on human glioma cell lines. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics Fast Forward, 308: 838-845.
McAllister SD, Christian, RT, Horowitz MP, Garcia A & Desprez P-Y. Cannabidiol as a novel inhibitor of Id-1 gene expression in aggressive breast cancer cells. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics., 2007;6: 2921-2927.
McKallip RJ et al. (2006). Cannabidiol-induced apoptosis in human leukemia cells: A novel role of Cannabidiol in the regulation of p22phox and Nox4 expression. Molecular Pharmacology, 70:897-908.
Michalski CW, Oti FE, Erkan M, Sauliunaite D, Bergmann F, Pacher P, Batkai S, Müller MW, Giese NA, Friess H, & Kleeff J. Cannabinoids in pancreatic cancer: correlation with survival and pain. International Journal of Cancer. 2008; 122(4):742-50.
Mimeault M, Pommery N, Wattez N, Bailly C, & Hénichart JP. (2003). Anti-proliferative and apoptotic effects of anandamide in human prostate cancer cell lines. Prostate. 56: 1-12.
Munson AE, e.al. Anticancer activity of cannabinoids. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1975; 55:597.
Parolaro & Massi (2008). Cannabinoids as a potential new drug therapy for the treatment of gliomas. Expert Reviews of Neurotherapeutics. 8: 37-49.
Pastos et al (2005). The endogenous cannabinoid, anandamide, induces cell death in colorectal carcinoma cells: a possible role for cyclooxygenase-2. Gut. 54: 1731-1750.
Powles T, te Poele, R, Shamash J, Chaplin T, Propper D, Joel S, Oliver T & Lium WM. (2005). Cannabis-induced cytotoxicity in leukemic cell lines. Blood. 105: 1214-1221.
Preet, A., Ganju, R.K. & Groopman, J.E. (2008). Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol inhibits epithelial growth factor-induced lung cancer cell migration in vitro as well as its growth and metastasis in vivo. Oncogene. 27(3):339-46. Epub 2007 Jul 9.
Qamri Z, Preet A, Nasser MW, Bass CE, Leone G, Barsky SH & Ganju RK. (2009). Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists inhibit tumor growth and metastasis of breast cancer. Molecular Cancer Ther. 8(11):3117-29. Epub 2009 Nov 3.
Ramer R & Hinz B. (2008). Inhibition of cancer cell invasion by cannabinoids via increased cell expression of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 100: 59-69.
Ramer R, Merkord J, Rohde H & Hinz B. (2010). Cannabidiol inhibits cancer cell invasion via upregulation of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases-1. Biochemical Pharmacology.79(7):955-66.
Sarfaraz et al. (2005). Cannabinoid receptors as a novel target for the treatment of prostate cancer. Cancer Research. 65:1635-1641.
Sarafaraz S, Adhami VM, Syed DN, Afaq F & Mukhtar H. (2008). Cannabinoids for cancer treatment: progress and promise. Cancer Research. 68:339-342.
Torres S, Lorente M, Rodríguez-Fornés F, et al. A combined preclinical therapy of cannabinoids and Temozolomide against glioma. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics. 2011;10:90-103.
Velasco G, Sanchez C & Guzman M. Towards the use of cannabinoids as antitumour agents. Nature Reviews Cancer. Online 4 May 2012; doi:10.1038/nrc3247.
Whyte DA, Al-Hammadi S, Balhaj G, Brown OM, Penefsky HS & Souid AK. Cannabinoids inhibit cellular respiration of human oral cancer cells. Pharmacology. 2010; 85(6):328-35.
Cannabidiol and other cannabinoids
Bergamaschi MM, Queiroz RHC, Crippa JA & Zuardi AW. Safety and side effects of cannabidiol, a Cannabis sativa constituent. Current Drug Safety. 2011; 6(4):237-49.
Izzo AA, Borrelli F, Capasso R, Di Marzo V & Mechoulam R. (2009). Non-psychotropic plant cannabinoids: new therapeutic opportunities from an ancient herb. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 30(10):515-27.
Kogan, N. (2005). Cannabinoids and cancer. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry. 5(10): 941-52
Malfait AM, Gallily R, Sumariwalla PF, Malik AS, Andreakos E, Mechoulam R & Feldmann M . (2000). The nonpsychoactive cannabis constituent cannabidiol is an oral anti-arthritic therapeutic in murine collagen-induced arthritis. Procedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U S A, 97(17), 9561-6.
Pertwee RG. (2005). Pharmacological actions of cannabinoids. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 168:1-51 (Reivew).
Rajesh M, Mukhopadhyay P, Bátkai S, Patel V, Saito K, Matsumoto S, Kashiwaya Y, Horváth B, Mukhopadhyay B, Becker L, Haskó G, Liadet L, Wink DA, Veves A, Mechoulam R & Pacher P. (2010). Cannabidiol attenuates cardiac dysfunction, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and inflammatory and cell death signaling pathways in diabetic cardiomyopathy. Journal Am Coll Cardiol. 56(25):2115-25.
Russo E. (2011). Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects.(Review) British Journal of Pharmacology. DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01238.x
Cardiovascular
Amorós I, Barana A, Caballero R, Gómez R, Osuna L, Lillo, MP, Tamargo J & Delpón E. (2010). Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid analogues block human cardiac Kv4.3 channels in a receptor-dependent manner. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology. 48(1):201-10.
Batkai et al (2004). Endocannabinoids acting at cannabinoid-1 receptors regulate cardiovascular function in hypertension. Circulation. 110: 1996-220.
Durst R et al (2007) Cannabidiol, a nonpsychoactive Cannabis constituent, protects against myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury. American Journal of Physiology and Heart Circulation Physiology. 293: H3602-7
Grotenhermen, F. (2006). Clinical pharmacodynamics of cannabinoids. In Russo et al (Eds). Handbbok of Cannabis Therapeutics. Binghampton, NY: Haworth Press.
Hajrasouliha AR, Tavakoli S, Ghasemi M, Jabehdar-Maralani P, Sadeghipour H, Ebrahimi F & Dehpour AR. (2008). Endogenous cannabinoids contribute to remote ischemic preconditioning via cannabinoid CB2 receptors in the rat heart. European Journal of Pharmacology. 579:246-52
Hiley CR. (2009). Endocannabinoids and the heart. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology. 53(4):267-76.
Hillard, C. (2000). Endocannabinoids and vascular function. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 294: 27-32.
Jones, R. (2002). Cardiovascular system effects of marijuana. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 42: 58-63.
Karch, S. (2006). Cannabis and cardiotoxicity. Forensic Science, Medicine, and Pathology. 2: 13-18.
Kunos, et al (2000). Endocannabinoids as cardiovascular modulators. Chemistry and Physics of Lipids. 108: 159-168.
Mach, F. (2006). New anti-inflammatory agents to reduce atherosclerosis. Archives of Physiology and Biochemistry. 112: 130-137.
Mach, R., Montecucco, F. & Steffens, S. (2008). Cannabinoid receptors in acute and chronic complications of atherosclerosis. British Journal of Pharmacology. 153: 290-298.
Pacher et al (2005). Blood pressure regulation by endocannabinoids and their receptors. Neuropharmacology. 48: 1130-1138.
Pacher P & Steffens S. (2009). The emerging role of the endocannabinoid system in cardiovascular disease. Semin Immunopathol. 31(1):63-77.
Rajesh M, Mukhopadhyay P, Bátkai S, Patel V, Saito K, Matsumoto S, Kashiwaya Y, Horváth B, Mukhopadhyay B, Becker L, Haskó G, Liadet L, Wink DA, Veves A, Mechoulam R & Pacher P. (2010). Cannabidiol attenuates cardiac dysfunction, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and inflammatory and cell death signaling pathways in diabetic cardiomyopathy. Journal Am Coll Cardiol. 56(25):2115-25.
Ribuot et al (2005). Cardiac and vascular effects of cannabinoids: toward a therapeutic use? Annales de Cardiologie et d’Angeiologie.(France) 54: 89-96.
Rodondi et al (2006). Marijuana use, diet, body mass index, and cardiovascular risk factors. American Journal of Cardiology. 98: 478-484.
Sarzani R. (2008). Endocannabinoids, blood pressure and the human heart. Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 20(Suppl.1):58-62.
Steffens & Mach, F (2006). Cannabinoid receptors in atherosclerosis. Current Opinion in Lipidology. 17: 519-526.
von Haehling S, Lainscak M, Springer J & Anker SD (2008). Cardiac cachexia: A systematic overview. Pharmacology and Therapeutics. Doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2008.09.009.
Walsh SK, Hepburn CY, Kane KA & Wainwright CL. (2010). Acute administration of cannabidiol in vivo suppresses ischaemia-induced cardiac arrhythmias and reduces infarct size when given at reperfusion. Br. J Pharmacol. 160(5):1234-42.
Zuurman L, Ippel AE, Moin E & van Gerven,JMA. (2008). Biomarkers for the effects of cannabis and THC in healthy volunteers. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 67(1):5-21.
Clinical Trials
Abrams, D.I., Hilton, J.F., Leiser, R.J., Shade, S.B., Elbeik, T.A., Aweeka, F.T., Benowitz, N.L., Bredt, B.M., Kosel, B., Aberg, J.A., Deeks, S.G., Mitchess, T.F., Mulligan, K., Bacchette, P., McCune, J.M. & Schambelan, M. (2003). Short-term effects of cannabinoids in patients with HIV-1 infection: A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Annals of Internal Medicine. 139: 258-266.
Abrams, D.I., Jay, C.A., Shade, S.B., Vizoso, H., Reda, H., Press, S., Kelly, M.E., Rowbotham, M.C. & Peterson, K.L. (2007). Cannabis in painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathy: A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Neurology. 68:515-521.
Blake, D. R., Robson, P., Ho, M., Jubb, R. W., & McCabe, C. S. (2006). Preliminary assessment of the efficacy, tolerability and safety of a cannabis-based medicine (Sativex) in the treatment of pain caused by rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford), 45(1), 50-52.
Brady, C. M., DasGupta, R., Dalton, C., Wiseman, O. J., Berkley, K. J., & Fowler, C. J. (2004). An open-label pilot study of cannabis based extracts for bladder dysfunction in advanced multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis, 10, 425-433.
Collin, C., Davies, P., Mutiboko, I. K., & Ratcliffe, S. (2007). Randomized controlled trial of cannabis-based medicine in spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol, 14(3), 290-296.
Corey-Bloom J, Wolfson T, Gamst A, Jin S, Marcotte TD, Bentley H & Gouaux B. (2012). Smoked cannabis for spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. CMAJ. 184(10). DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.110837
Ellis, R. J., Toperoff, W., Vaida, F., van den Brande, G., Gonzales, J., Gouaux, B., et al. (2009). Smoked medicinal cannabis for neuropathic pain in HIV: a randomized, crossover clinical trial. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34(3), 672-680.
Haney, M., Gunderson, E. W., Rabkin, J., Hart, C. L., Vosburg, S. K., Comer, S. D., et al. (2007). Dronabinol and marijuana in HIV-positive marijuana smokers. Caloric intake, mood, and sleep. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr, 45(5), 545-554.
Lynch, M. E., Young, J., & Clark, A. J. (2006). A case series of patients using medicinal marihuana for management of chronic pain under the Canadian Marihuana Medical Access Regulations. J Pain Symptom Manage, 32(5), 497-501.
Musty, R. E., & Rossi, R. (2001). Effects of smoked cannabis and oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on nausea and emesis after cancer chemotherapy: A review of state clinical trials. Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics, 1(1), 29-42.
Notcutt, W., Price, M., Miller, R., Newport, S., Phillips, C., Simmonds, S., et al. (2004). Initial experiences with medicinal extracts of cannabis for chronic pain: results from 34 “N of 1” studies. Anaesthesia, 59, 440-452.
Notcutt, W. G., Sharief, M., Mutiboko, I., Hawkes, C., Bolt, J., & Sarantis, N. (2006). Cannabis based medicine (Sativex) for chronic pain due to multiple sclerosis or other neurological dysfunction: a randomised controlled trial. European Journal of Pain, (in press).
Novotna A, Mares J, Ratcliffe S, Novakova I, Vachova M, Zapletalova O, Gasperini C, Pozzilli C, Cefaro L, Comi G, Rossi P, ambler Z, Stelmasiak Z, Erdmann A, Montalban X, Klimek a, Davies P & Sativex Study Group. (2011). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group, enriched-design study of nabiximols* (Sativex®), as add-on therapy, in subjects with refractory spasticity caused by multiple sclerosis. Eur J Neurol. 18(9):1122-31.
Nurmikko, T. J., Serpell, M. G., Hoggart, B., Toomey, P. J., & Morlion, B. J. (2005). A multi-center, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial of oro-mucosal cannabis-based medicine in the treatment of neuropathic pain characterized by allodynia. Neurology, 64(6, Suppl. 1), A374.
Rog, D. J., Nurmiko, T., Friede, T., & Young, C. (2005). Randomized controlled trial of cannabis based medicine in central neuropathic pain due to multiple sclerosis. Neurology, 65(6), 812-819.
Russo, E. B. (2008). Cannabinoids in the management of difficult to treat pain. Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management, 4(1), 245-259.