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Note. All citations taken from Brown, D. R. & Harvey, D. (2006). An experiential approach to organization development (7th ed.). Delhi, India: Dorling Kindersley.
#1
Organization Development (OD) “comprises the long-range efforts and programs aimed at improving an organization’s ability to survives by changing its problem-solving and renewal processes” (p. 29). That is, OD strives to help organizations achieve their full potential by implementing changes and programs (i.e., interventions) to address areas of need at the individual, work group, and organizational levels.
OD is different from other change programs in that it is far-sighted, disciplined, holistic, and grounded in scientific theory. It does not rely on “one-size-fits-all” approaches to solving problems. It only implements changes when needs are empirically present and attempts to address causes that are empirically and theoretically to blame any problems. Also, because OD is interdisciplinary in nature, it is not limited to addressing job satisfaction issues or “morale.” It addresses the whole gamut of organizational effectiveness from the production floor to the CEO’s desk.
#2
Organizational culture is the set of beliefs, values, and norms that exists (implicitly and explicitly) within an organization. The culture tends to dictate (or at least influence) the ways that employees behave and how work is done within the organization. “A corporate culture gives the whole organization a sense of how to behave, what to do, and where to set the priorities in getting the job done. Culture helps members fill in the blanks between formal directives and how the work actually is done” (p. 97). The creation of a culture is usually not intentional—it begins once the organization initiates operations.
Cultures are often self-perpetuating and quite resistant to change. In fact, cultures often continue unchanged even though the environment in which the organization now functions may make the culture inefficient. On the other hand, some organizations strive to generate a culture of change. This helps the organization grow and adapt and plan for changes in the environment, market, etc. Organizational culture is present in every organization; the degree to which it helps or hinders the organization depends on the content of the culture.
#3
Satisficing management often exists when the environment is stable and organizational change is at a pace that is barely sufficient to meet the demands of the changing environment. It is a style of management characterized by the "good enough" attitude. That is, the top of the line and the cutting edge is not the goal nor the norm of satisficing management. As long as the organizational functions are "good enough" to keep going, nothing is changed or done.
While this style of management works well in stable environments, it falters under conditions where the pace of change is rapid, resulting in a condition that Toffler calls future shock. He defines future shock as, "too much change in too short a time" (p. 71). When the environment changes more rapidly than management's capacity to change, future shock is likely to happen. Management must move out of the satisficing orientation in order to deal with accelerated change and avoid future shock.
#4
Change efforts typically focus on three possible areas; they are: individual effectiveness, team effectiveness, and organization effectiveness.
Within the team domain, change efforts will attempt to improve the team's task activities (i.e., what the team does) or the team's process (i.e., how the team works together). An example of a technique for improving team effectiveness is process observation. In this technique, the practitioner attempts to uncover and understand "such factors as leadership, decision making, communication, and conflict" (p. 75). By observing the group's process, the practitioner can understand how the group functions and where the process might be malfunctioning, harming the group's performance.
#6
Of the four modes listed in the text, I think that the preferred mode is "consensus." In this mode, the relationship is open and free. There are no restrictions on the expression of feelings, disagreement, etc. "Members continually share perceptions and feelings openly" (p. 138). Personal view-points are valued and listened to.
This relationship mode is the most desirable because it best facilitates acceptance of change. Perceptions of fairness increase when people are given a chance to voice their opinions rather than just having everything forced upon them. This also increases interest in the OD program and buy-in among employees.
Organizational members that are invested in the OD program are more likely to help facilitate the program, to bring out the desired changes, and to feel comfortable with the resulting organizational state.
#7
Client-practitioner trust is essential for the success of any OD intervention because the OD process is one in which a large amount of communication between practitioner and client is necessary. Duplicity and/or deception harm both the practitioner and the client and possibly the organization. “When there is no trust, people will tend to be dishonest, evasive, and not authentic with one another, and communication is often inaccurate, distorted, or incomplete” (p. 136).
There are several methods to help build and maintain trust. One is asking questions. When the practitioner asks questions, it expresses and interest in the client and the organization. A second is advising. This method builds trust in the practitioner’s subject expertise; however, it does not undermine the autonomy of the client.
There are several other methods to increase trust. These are reflection (i.e., when the practitioner gives the client’s own words back to him in order to show the practitioner is listening and trying to understand), interpretation (i.e., summarizing and making conclusions based on information provided by the client), self-disclosure (i.e., providing personal information in order to identify with the client), and silence (i.e., showing the client that he/she has an open floor and time to organize his/her thoughts).
#8
Gap analysis refers to the procedure of understanding the desired state of affairs, knowing the current state of affairs, and figuring out how far the current state is from the desired state. For example, the Maryland State Department of Education may want 80% of its students scoring at the proficient level or higher on the HSAs. (This would be the desired state.) However, as it currently stands, only 60% of students are scoring at this level (this would be the current state). The gap analysis would indicate that the difference between the goal and the extant is 20%. (This is a simplistic example, of course.)
The power of a gap analysis is it allows for a concrete understanding of the progress yet to be made for any type of objective. It could be used in workforce planning, production, marketing, or even leadership development.
#9
The force-field analysis model (Lewin) is a powerful for diagnosing problems and identifying possible solutions. The idea is to understand the forces that drive or hold back the unit from obtaining the desired outcome. The current level of the indicator or outcome is assessed, and then, the forces that drive the indicator to change are listed on one side of the current level, and the forces that restrain (or hold back) the indicator are listed on the other side. These two force types "push" against one another to obtain a balance that manifests itself as the current state of affairs.
In order to make any changes to the current state, forces on the driving side must be increased or added, and forces on the restraining side must be decreased or removed.
Let us use the education example discussed above. If the current state of affairs is a 60% proficiency rate among students, then the forces that act on that rate must be understood and listed appropriately as driving or restraining forces. For example, driving forces might be: increasing curriculum standards, need for students to pass due to recent legislation, bonuses for passing, teaching to the test, etc. Restraining forces might be: lack of adequate teacher training in low-income school districts, not enough days to cover necessary material, extensive review of old material instead of development of new, student mobility (i.e., turnover), absenteeism (i.e., truancy). If any of these forces is changed or is removed, then the current state of affairs will change. In order to move the current state in the desired direction (i.e., toward 80%), driving forces (e.g., bonuses for passing) might be increased or restraining forces (e.g., truancy) might be decreased.
#10
The over-diagnosis is when the practitioner goes to such great lengths to identify all of the problems and corresponding causes in an organization that there is nothing that can be done. The result is a type of paralysis; the practitioner and the client have information overload and nowhere and no-how to deal with, solve, or change the problems indicated by the diagnosis.
The crisis diagnosis is when the practitioner only attends to and addresses the most pressing and salient short-term issues within an organization. This entails dealing with the crisis at hand with no larger or broader picture of the context in which the crisis occurred, and, perhaps, the deeper root of the problem. It's like refilling a car with oil when there's actually a hole in the oil pan.
The threatening diagnosis occurs when the practitioner confronts the client with the discovered problems in a way that is too monolithic or too overwhelming. Denial of problems is a typical human behavior, and usually, the more serious the issue, the more vehement the denial. This is true for organizations. If a practitioner comes to a client with a report that the organization has a grave disorder, the client may discredit or, even worse, completely reject the practitioner's diagnosis.
The practitioner's favorite diagnosis occurs when the practitioner becomes akin to repeatedly using the same diagnosis over and over again (often whether or not it is really accurate). Although organizational problems can be typified in certain ways, each organization is unique. One must be careful not to fall into habitual diagnosis (e.g., “the problem is low morale”).
#11
Fear of the unknown is a strong cause of resistance to change. A lack of information about the result of or the procedures of the change often result in hearsay, rumors, and other social “grapevines” to be activated with a wide variety of conjectures. This uncertainty makes the change appear threatening.
Not only the unknown but also changes to routine can cause resistance to change. People tend to function by using behavioral “templates” and patterns in their everyday environment. This makes life predictable and safe. This safety makes implementing change an unnecessary risk. Who knows what the change will bring? The future is uncertain compared to the safety of the present.
#12
One method for dealing with resistance to change is to have members participate in the change program. When employees are included in the decision process, they are more likely to accept the program, support the program, and change their own patterns to those indicated by the change.
Another method for dealing with resistance to change is by providing adequate and thorough information and education. Without information about the change, why the change is occurring, when it will occur, etc., employees are free to fill in the gaps in ways that are often detrimental to the success of the change program. Providing the information minimizes the fear of the unknown and allows employees to feel like educated consumers aware of their surroundings and the future. However, it is important to point out that sometimes too much information can be a bane to the change effort, so a careful balance of the right kind of the right information must be maintained to facilitate change success.
#13
There are five main areas of group process that process interventions address. First, there are group communications. These include the patterns of interchange between group members, who dominates conversation and who refuses to speak, and the pattern of interruptions. This information helps the group to understand how its members communicate with one another and develop more effective methods of communication. Second, process interventions address member roles and functions. That is, group members tend to perform or play out specific patterns of behavior that can be defined as roles. Examples of these roles include compromising, gatekeeping, dominating, blocking, elaborating, etc. Third, process interventions address problem-solving and decision making. In addressing this area, interventions deal with the way in which the group defines and solves problems and the way in which decisions are made in the group. In order for the group to function effectively, it must be able to accurately and adequately assess, address, and answer its extant issues. Fourth, process interventions address group norms and growth such that the intervention focuses on identifying group norms and assessing the effectiveness of these norms. New norms can be established to replace the old, and the group’s processes improve accordingly. Fifth, process interventions address leadership and authority. In this domain, interventions are geared to help the group understand the leadership role and how group members (while usually preserving a single leader) may move in and out of sub-leadership roles in order to share leadership responsibilities among group members.
#15
When selecting an OD intervention, there are three main factors to consider. First, one must consider the “potential results of the technique” (p. 250). The outcomes (in terms of success or failure in solving basic problems) should be taken into account. Also, additional outcomes (i.e., positive by-products) should be included in the analysis of potential results.
Second, one must consider the “potential implementation of the technique” (p. 250). The business world is by and large pragmatic in nature. A great idea that is not economically or practically feasible is not great at all. One must think of is the technique is actually do-able in the given situation, and if the potential benefits of the technique will outweigh the potential costs.
Third, one must consider “the potential acceptance of the technique” (p. 251). That is, the technique must be seen as acceptable by the client; establishing acceptability also includes providing the client with adequate information about the technique. And the technique should be tested and found to be a reliable method for addressing the problem at hand.
#16
Interpersonal interventions do more than just help individuals communicate more effectively. The fact is, “an organization’s climate is formed by the interaction and communication between its members” (p. 270). A large part of what makes an organization effective or ineffective is the nature of the communication between individuals within that organization.
As such, interpersonal interventions hold a great deal of value for the organization in that they help to facilitate effective communication between members, therefore improving organizational effectiveness. Interpersonal interventions address issues that basic business tactics cannot reach—they reach to the person-level and help improve an organization from the ground up.
#17
The role analysis technique is “designed to clarify role expectations” (p. 323). That is, in work groups and teams, every individual has a role to fulfill. However, the each person’s expectations of his or her own role may not necessarily match with other members’ expectations of that person’s role. “Role analysis is used to clarify such role discrepancies, leading to improved cohesiveness and functioning” (p. 323).
The technique is relatively simple, each individual has a turn as the “target person.” That person explains his or her perceptions of the role he or she is to fulfill. Then, each group member explains his or her expectations of the target person’s role. When an individual is not sure of what his or her role entails, then role ambiguity is present (i.e., when the expectations of a given role are unclear or undefined). When an individual’s conceptions of the role do not match the expectations of the rest of the group, role conflict is present (i.e., when the individual expectations concerning the role do not correspond).
#18
During the analysis phase of the ADDIE model, one must consider how the training program is to be created—either internally, externally by outsourcing, or externally via a pre-made program. There are several factors that play into this decision including the size of the organization, the level of expertise of the in-house trainers, the subject to be trained, etc. During the design phase, there are several important factors to consider; one of which is how the program will be evaluated for its effectiveness (i.e., developing evaluation criteria). It is imperative to know if the training program is effective, and if not, what can be done to improve it.
During the third phase, development, one must reflect on which instructional method would be the most beneficial for the given training program. There are three methods to choose from: active, passive, or experiential. Each has its own benefits and drawbacks—active methods are best for presenting a small amount of information that needs to be thoroughly attended to, passive methods are best for presenting a large amount of information to a large number of people, and experiential methods are best for procedural training (i.e., when some sort of physical activity is the subject of the training).