William McIntosh: Creek Leader

William McIntosh (ca. 1775-1825) was born in the Lower Creek town of Coweta, in what is now Carroll County, Georgia. Like many Creeks, McIntosh was of mixed parentage, both white and Creek. He was a controversial Creek Indian leader. McIntosh supported plans to "civilize" the Creeks. Slave owning, livestock herding, cotton cultivation, and personal ownership of property were examples of changes to traditional Creek ways of life that McIntosh promoted. He himself owned two plantations with African slaves, Lockchau Talofau ("Acorn Bluff") in present-day CarrollCounty, and Indian Springs, in present-day ButtsCounty. Both are maintained today as historic sites. While McIntosh's support of civilization efforts earned him the respect of U.S. officials, more traditional Creeks regarded him with distrust.

As a young man, McIntosh maintained ties to Indian agents, U.S. military officers, and deerskin traders and used these connections to obtain enough resources to create a large exchange network. McIntosh provided gifts and supplies to his supporters, who in return would listen to his public and private counsel. He used these connections and alliances to amass a personal fortune. He readily accepted bribes and pursued his self-interests over those of the Creek Nation as a whole.

Despite the fervent opposition of many Upper Creeks, and with McIntosh’s cousin, Georgia Governor George Troup's assurances of protection, Chief McIntosh, together with a small contingent of mostly Lower Creek chiefs, negotiated the second Treaty of Indian Springs, in 1825. This treaty provided for the cession of virtually all Creek land remaining in the state of Georgia in exchange for a payment of $200,000. On February 12, 1825, only six chiefs, including McIntosh, signed the document. Whatever his motivations were, McIntosh's participation in the 1825 Treaty of Indian Springs cost him his life. According to a Creek law that McIntosh himself had supported, a sentence of execution awaited any Creek leader who ceded land to the United States without the full assent of the entire Creek Nation. Just before dawn on April 30, 1825, Upper Creek chief Menawa, accompanied by 200 Creek warriors, attacked McIntosh at Lockchau Talofau to carry out the sentence.

Shot in the front doorway of his home, McIntosh managed to climb the stairs to the second floor, from which he began shooting at his assailants. Forced to leave when they set fire to the house, he was shot and dragged some distance from the house. Raising himself on an elbow, he gave them a defiant look as he was stabbed in the heart. An eyewitness estimated that his corpse was shot about 50 times. After destroying what they could not carry off-slaves, horses, and cattle--the assassins left.

Answer the following questions in complete sentences.
1. In what county was McIntosh born?
2. McIntosh supported “civilization” of Native Americans. Give two examples of how McIntosh lived a “civilized” life.
3. Why didn’t the Creeks trust McIntosh?
4. How was McIntosh able to create such a strong network of relationships and alliances?
5. Who is another person we’ve learned about that used her mixed heritage to negotiate between whites and Native Americans?
6. What does it mean to accept a bribe?
7. In your own words, describe what the 1825 Treaty of Indian Springs was.
8. Why did McIntosh’s signing of this treaty break Creek laws, and how was he punished?

Answers
1. In what county was McIntosh born?
McIntosh was born in Carroll County, Georgia.
2. McIntosh supported “civilization” of Native Americans. Give two examples of how McIntosh lived a “civilized” life.
He owned slaves and lived on plantations (owned personal property).
3. Why didn’t the Creeks trust McIntosh?
He went against Creek traditions, and often acted in his own self-interest rather than those of the Creek Nation.
4. How was McIntosh able to create such a strong network of relationships and alliances?
He was able to use his mixed (white and Creek) heritage to build a variety of relationships that benefited him.
5. Who is another person we’ve learned about that used her mixed heritage to negotiate between whites and Native Americans?
Mary Musgrove also used her heritage to negotiate between whites and Native Americans.
6. What does it mean to accept a bribe?
To accept a bribe is to be persuaded to do something for someone else in exchange for money or gifts.
7. In your own words, describe what the 1825 Treaty of Indian Springs was.
The 1825 Treaty of Indian Springs was a treaty that required Creek Indians to give up all lands in Georgia in exchange for $200,000. Seven Creek chiefs, including McIntosh, signed the treaty.
8. Why did McIntosh’s signing of this treaty break Creek laws, and how was he punished?
McIntosh broke the law in signing this treaty because Creek chiefs were not allowed to cede any land to the United States without permission from the entire Creek Nation. As a punishment, McIntosh was killed in his home.