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Macromolecules
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Watch the movie and write down 3 facts from the movie.
Write down the letters to the answers from the graded quiz.
Biological Molecules:
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Listen and watch the animation as you fill in the blanks. You will need to click from slide to slide to answer all questions. Indentations of paragraphs indicate a new slide. There are some slides that require you to manipulate words or pictures before moving on.
Most biological molecules are very large and are built by assembling small molecules, or ______, into long chains. The resulting molecules are called ______, or ______. A process of linking monomers, called ______, involves the removal of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom to form ______. One way this might happen is diagrammed here, where several generic monomers are shown with -OH groups that could be used for linking. The animation illustrates the joining together of monomers by dehydration synthesis (catalyzed by a polymerase enzyme), and the reverse process, in which added water results in ______(catalyzed by a hydrolase enzyme).
Carbohydrates:
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______include sugars and ______of sugars. These molecules are used as building materials and sources of energy. Single sugar molecules (called ______) and linked pairs of sugars (called ______) are important as building blocks and cellular fuels. ______are long chains of sugars. A polysaccharide called ______is a major component of plant cell walls. Plant cells store sugars in the form of a polysaccharide called starch. (Animals store a polysaccharide called ______.) Polysaccharides on cell membranes act as cell identification tags.
Simple sugars, or ______, are the simplest carbohydrates. Monosaccharides vary in size; their carbon skeletons range from ______carbon atoms. They generally have a molecular formula that is some multiple of CH2O. The formula for glucose, for example, is ______.
Monosaccharides are often drawn with linear carbon skeletons, but in water all monosaccharides that contain more than three carbon atoms bend around to form ______. Click on each question number to review the functions of these monosaccharides. Write the correct answer for each below.
1. ______Major nutrient, central to cellular metabolism. It is broken down for energy in the process of cellular respiration. The carbon skeleton of this sugar can also be used to build many other organic molecules, including amino acids and fatty acids.
2. ______The monosaccharide that is the energy-storing molecule produced by photosynthesis. Two of these molecules combine to make glucose.
3. ______The monosaccharide that combines with glucose to form lactose, the disaccharide in milk.
4. ______The monosaccharide that is sometimes called fruit sugar-- the one that makes apples and berries sweet. This monosaccharide is also used to make the disaccharide sucrose, or table sugar.
5. ______The monosaccharide that is an important component of RNA and ATP. A modified form is used in building DNA.
Sometimes organisms link sugar molecules in pairs to form disaccharides. Here are several examples:
-- Plants make sucrose by joining ______& ______. Sucrose circulates in plant sap, and we obtain it from sugar cane and sugar beets and use it as table sugar.
-- Lactose is formed by joining ______& ______. Lactose is the disaccharide that gives milk its sweet taste.
-- Maltose consists of two linked ______molecules. Digestion of starch-- in a sprouting seed or in the intestine of an animal-- produces this disaccharide.
______are polymers— long chains consisting of hundreds to thousands of linked monosaccharides. Click on each question number to review these polysaccharides. Write the correct answer for each below.
1.______The polysaccharide that stores glucose for energy in animal cells, especially those in the liver and muscle. This polysaccharide is the animal equivalent of plant starch, but its molecules are more branched than starch.
2.______The polysaccharide that plant cell walls are made of. It is the most abundant organic compound on Earth. Like starch, this polysaccharide is made of glucose, but the chains are made from a different glucose isomer, so they have different properties.
3.______The polysaccharide that represents a compact stockpile of glucose units— linked together in a chain— that can be stored by a plant for later use. Sometimes sections of the chain are detached and bound to the sides as branches.
LIPIDS:
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Lipids are a diverse family of molecules that includes ______, ______, ______, and ______such as cholesterol. One feature that all lipids share is their low ______in ______, a characteristic that is important to the functions of many lipids. Cells often contain droplets containing fats-- large lipid molecules rich in stored ______. ______cells in animals are almost completely filled with fat. In addition to storing energy, adipose tissue also ______the body and ______organs. The membranes around and within cells are made mostly of ______. ______, a type of lipid called a steroid, is also a component of membranes.
Butter, lard, margarine, and salad oil are composed of lipids called ______. To make a fat molecule, three ______bind to a molecule of ______. For this reason, fat molecules are technically called ______. Fat molecules do not mix with water because they have three long ______hydrocarbon tails. Cells use fats for energy storage because the tails hold more ______than other biological molecules.
The fatty acid tails in a fat can vary in length. A very important characteristic of fats is the number of double bonds in the hydrocarbon tails. Fats that contain only single bonds are called ______fats. Fats containing double bonds in one or more tails are called ______fats. Unsaturated fats tend to be ______at room temperature; ______are examples. ______fats, like ______and ______, are solid at room temperature. Saturated fats in the diet can lead to ______, while unsaturated fats are ______.
Phospholipids are important components of ______. Like fats, phospholipid molecules contain fatty acid tails linked to a glycerol portion, but in phospholipids a group containing ______replaces one of the tails. This makes the molecule ambivalent with regard to water: Part of it is ______and mixes with water, while part of it is ______and excluded from water. Label the parts of this phospholipid molecule by selecting words from the pull-down menus. Do this until you are correct before moving on.
Lipids also include a family of molecules called steroids. All steroids have the same carbon skeleton made of ______linked rings; they differ in what is attached to the rings.
Click on the box below each steroid and see if you can match it with its function. Do this until correct before moving on.
Proteins:
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Most proteins are folded into a complex ______shape. Each protein molecule consists of one or more chains of ______monomers. The amino acids are linked by ______bonds, so a protein polymer is often called a ______. Because they are so complicated, proteins are usually described in terms of four levels of structure.
Each protein has a unique primary structure— a particular number and ______of amino acids making up the polypeptide chain. ______different amino acids are used to build proteins. Theoretically, the various amino acids could be linked in almost any sequence, forming an almost infinite ______of different proteins. Click on the magnifying glass (in the lower right corner) to see primary structure in more detail.
This illustration shows some of the amino acids making up the primary structure of a protein. The structure of a single generalized amino acid is shown below. The main ______of every amino acid is the same. This is what forms the backbone of the polypeptide chain. It is the ______(which projects out from the backbone) that makes each of the twenty kinds of amino acids unique. Different amino acids have different properties that affect the ______of a protein. Thus, primary structure ultimately determines the ______of a protein, which determines its ______.
In most proteins, parts of the polypeptide chain are ______or ______, forming twists and corrugations. This is secondary structure. The turns and folds of secondary structure contribute to the protein's overall shape. One kind of secondary structure is the ______helix, where the chain twists. Another is the ______, where the chain folds back on itself or where two regions of the chain lie parallel to one another. Click on the magnifying glass to examine secondary structure in more detail.
Read the information listed after magnifying the structure.
Superimposed on primary and secondary structure is ______structure, irregular loops and folds that give the protein its overall three-dimensional shape. Click on the magnifying glass to see tertiary structure in more detail.
Read the information listed after magnifying the structure.
Some proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains. The fourth level of protein structure-- ______structure-- results from the combination of two or more polypeptide subunits. Click on the magnifying glass for a more detailed look at quaternary structure.
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Proteins-- the purple blobs in this closeup of an animal cell-- are the most complicated molecules known. A cell contains ______of kinds of proteins, which carry out a variety of functions. In most cases, a protein's function depends on its complex three-dimensional structure.
Click on each protein to see a demonstration and description of its function. Note how function depends on protein shape and changes in shape. Fill in the information below as you examine each protein.
- ______proteins include hormonal proteins that help coordinate an organism's activities by acting as signals between cells. For example, ______, a hormonal protein secreted by the ______, signals an animal's cells to take in and use sugar. The hormone receptor is also a protein.
- ______molecules bind to signal molecules and can then emit second messengers which trigger changes inside a cell. Receptors are thus important links in the system of communication among cells. Some signal molecules, such as ______, are also proteins.
- ______proteins carry molecules from place to place. The example shown here allows certain solute molecules to enter the cell. ______is the transport protein that carries oxygen in the blood.
- ______proteins detect environmental changes such as light, and respond by emitting or producing signals that call for a response.
- ______proteins have many functions. Like tent poles and ropes, they shape cells and anchor cell parts. They may serve as tracks along which cell parts can move. They bind cells together, making organized units such as ______, ______, and the ______that bind muscles to bones. The silk of ______and the ______of mammals are also structural proteins.
- An ______is a protein that changes the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being changed into a different molecule in the process. Enzymes promote and regulate virtually all ______in cells.
- ______proteins stockpile building components that cells can use to make other proteins. Storage proteins in ______provide raw materials used by the developing plant-- unless an animal eats them first!
______, the main substance in egg white, serves as a storage protein for developing chick embryos. - ______regulatory proteins bind to DNA in particular locations and control whether or not certain genes will be read. This allows cells to become ______for different functions and respond to changes in their surroundings.
- The ______system makes defensive proteins called ______that bind to invaders (such as the virus shown here) and ______the foreign objects for destruction.
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Click on the narrated tab. Watch and listen how proteins can be damaged. Go back to the Intro tab and take the quiz writing down the answers to the quiz below:
Nucleic Acid:
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Nucleic acids are the cell's ______molecules. There are two kinds of nucleic acids: ______, or DNA, and ______, or RNA. DNA makes up the cell's inherited library of information-- the ______. DNA carries instructions for building all the ______that carry out cell activities. RNA acts as an intermediary in the ______-making process. DNA's information is ______into RNA, which is then ______into the primary structure of proteins.
______directs the manufacture of proteins. In eukaryotic cells, protein synthesis occurs in two main steps. First, information is transferred from DNA to ______RNA. The RNA leaves the ______and carries the information it received from DNA to the ______. The message in the RNA ______of ______is translated into a sequence of ______, which are linked to form a ______.
Review the steps and components involved in protein synthesis by selecting the correct labels. Do this until correct before moving on.
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This is a closeup view of a DNApolymer, one of two twisted strands that make up a DNA molecule. Cells make nucleic acid polymers by linking together four kinds of monomers called ______. Each nucleotide consists of a ______(______in DNA), a ______group, and a ______-containing base-- abbreviated G, A, C, or T. Like letters in a sentence, the sequence of nucleotides in a nucleic acid carries information. The DNA of every organism has a unique nucleotide sequence. This illustration shows only a tiny segment of DNA, which may be millions of nucleotides in length.
DNA normally consists of two strands of nucleotides that twist around one another, forming the famous ______. The strands are held together by ______bonds between pairs of nitrogenous bases. The base A always pairs with _____ and C always pairs with _____.
This is a closeup view of an RNApolymer. RNA looks a lot like DNA, except it is typically ______-stranded, contains a different sugar (called ______), and has the base ______(U) instead of ______(T). RNA is copied from part of a DNA molecule, so it is ______than DNA-- dozens to thousands of nucleotides.
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