R. Eleazar b. Abina said furthermore: Greater is [the achievement] ascribed to Michael than that ascribed to Gabriel. For of Michael it is written: Then flew unto me one of the Seraphim,31 whereas of Gabriel it is written: The man Gabriel whom I had seen in the vision at the beginning, being caused to fly in a flight etc.32 How do you know that this [word] ‘one’ [of the Seraphim] means Michael? — R. Johanan says: By an analogy from [the words] ‘one’, ‘one’. Here it is written: Then flew unto me one of the Seraphim; and in another place it is written: But, lo, Michael, one of the chief princes, came to help me.33 A Tanna taught: Michael [reaches his goal] in one [flight], Gabriel in two, Elijah in four, and the Angel of Death in eight. In the time of plague, however, [the Angel of Death, too, reaches his goal] in one.

(31) Isa. VI, 6.

(32) Dan. IX, 21. The meaning is: Michael covered the distance in one flight, without any stop, whereas Gabriel had to make two flights, resting in between. This is inferred from the fact that the word fly occurs twice.

Both James and Revelation associate Elijah’s drought with this time period.[1] James uses Elijah as an example of fervent prayer in the context of prayer for the sick and confession of sins (5:13–18). As Elijah’s drought was an occasion for Israel’s repentance, suffering is an occasion for confession of sins. This confession and repentance brings restoration in the form of rain for Israel healing for the sick. Immediately following mention of Elijah’s drought, James admonishes his audience on the value of “bringing back a sinner from his wandering” (vv. 19–20).

Thus it is possible that he intentionally encapsulates his letter with an address to the twelve tribes and a comparison with the paradigmatic prophet associated with Israel’s restoration at its conclusion.

Elijah’s three and a half year drought may be related to this time between inauguration and consummation. Some scholars have noted that the duration of Elijah’s drought in James may reflect the number’s association with judgment, evil or misfortune— though there is an overall hesitance to associate any overt eschatological or apocalyptic meaning to the number in James.[2]

Earlier in Daniel (11:35), a time of eschatological trial and purification (note similarities with Mal 3). In Dan 7:25 – The one who “speaks out against the Most High” and changes the “sacred seasons and the law” will reign for a time, two times, and a half a time, but after this time “The kingship and dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven shall be given to the people of the holy ones of the Most High; their kingdom shall be an everlasting kingdom, and all dominions shall serve and obey them.” (Dan 7:25) See also 9:27, where the time period is referred to as a half of a week.

While James may not be alluding specifically to Daniel 12 in his description of Elijah’s concept of .

For James, the figure of Elijah stands as an example to the community of faithfulness and prayer in an eschatological context. While James describes Elijah as “a man like us” (ἄνθρωπος . . . ὁμοιοπαθὴς ἡμῖν) he does not mean to slight the eschatological role of Elijah. Rather, James places his community among the prophetic ranks of the eschatological Elijah.

[1] Kurt Aland suggests that James’ treatment of Elijah’s drought was dependent upon Luke’s. Thus, he holds that James is a late text possibly originating from the Hellenistic “Stephanus-Kreisis.” See pgs. 235–236 in “Der Herrenbruder Jakobus und der Jakobusbrief,” (Neutestamentliche Entwürfe; Theologische Bücherei 63; Munich: Kaiser, 1979), 233–245.

[2] Hartin, James, 272; Dibelius, James, 256–257; Laws, James, 236.